Nowadays, many physically handicapped children are being mainstreamed into public school. Even though educators are slowly discovering that these juveniles have normal or above normal intelligence, teachers still do not know which teaching style will enhance the learning process. As a result, I propose to investigate the following questions: How do operant conditioning, classical conditioning, and psychosocial theories account for disabled second graders learning sentence structuring in English? Are these students more successful in achieving when presented with or without time limits (schedules of reinforcement)?

Construct

Martinez and Sewell (2000) documented that physically disabled students, who have been mainstreamed, experienced explanatory style. This referred to how students view themselves when adapting to bad events. “Whether an individual perceives these occurrences in an adaptive or maladaptive manner can profoundly influence the …quality of his or life” (p. 31). If students could not adapt to the learning environment, learned helplessness may be experienced. These pupils struggled through the following mental possess:

internal (it happened because of me) versus external (it happened because of something or somebody else); stable (this condition is permanent) versus unstable (this condition is temporary) global (this will interfere with everything) versus specific (this pertains only to this situation) (Martinez & Sewell, p. 32, 2000).

Results indicated that physical disability was not linked to the relation between explanatory style and academic performance. Nevertheless, negative thinking was correlated to learn helplessness and badly affected goal efficacy. In other words, “... the more pessimistic explanatory style an individual held, the likely he or she felt that his or her goals could not be accomplished” (Martinez & Sewell, p. 33, 2000). Elliot and Sheldon (1997) added that learn helplessness and pessimistic thinking lead to avoidance achievement motivation. Fear of failing a task was linked to avoiding goal mastery. This was also known as avoidance regulation, which referred to experiencing low perceived competence, high anxiety, and feeling physically unwell.

Sing-Fai (1996) wrote that when teachers offered numerous lessons of increasingly difficulty, they hoped to encourage disabled students to continue learning. “This perception of self-efficacy has important motivating role in that it can encourage the person to strive for further success” (p. 80). Mallinckrodt (1992) defined self efficacy as believing that an individual was able to perform the desired behavior. Moreover, if successfully completing tasks were to difficult, students’ motivation and self concept significantly reduced their self efficacy (Sing-Fai, 1996). Since these students mastered lessons through using computers, they remained highly motivated to continue learning. Phillips and Gully (1997) concluded that self efficacy and the need for achievement was essential to master their goals. Self efficacy also played a part in contributing to higher performance and setting higher goals. As a result, the disabled pupils avoided failure due to believing in their valuable abilities.

Theories

According to Bandura’s Observational Learning Theory, motor reproduction, attention, retention, and motivation were the functions to modeling (Baldwin, 1992). Observing the model, recalling the model’s actions, imitating the model’s actions, and applying the new learned behaviors were the modeling steps. Mimicking the model’s behaviors as closely as possible was the most essential part of the entire procedure.

Positive modeling was more desirable than negative modeling due to producing societal acceptable behaviors. For example, if children mocked a model with good hygiene, they probably would have dressed and combed their hair neatly to resemble the model. Researchers argued that imitating positive models were easier than mimicking negative models due to being exposed to additional information. In contrast, being surrounded by negative influences might disturb individuals from continuing mocking positive models.

After conducting further investigations, it was significantly reported being indulged to both negative and positive models made people performed certain tasks better than people who were only exposed to positive modeling.

... [This] suggests that such a learning stimulus may enhance understanding of concepts and foster a higher degree of mastery. In part, the value of the positive and negative strategy may stem from the … trainees are presented with a broader range of cues in the learning environment (Baldwin, p. 148, 1992).

It was concluded that an existing stimuli was critical in the social learning process. Offering stimuli increased the person’s ability to remember and identify the desired learned behaviors.

Prussia and Kinicki (1996) documented that although social cognitive theory was used for individual motivation, it also focused on group motivation. Bandura thought that motivation measured individuals’ effort needed to master goals (Power, 1991). Furthermore, Bandura’s theory revolved around the performance feedback, which affected self efficacy {individuals knowing that he or she can successfully perform certain behavior}, self evaluations {dissatisfaction motivates individuals to continue trying and satisfaction with accomplishments}, and personal goals (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996). This process strongly influenced the motivated behavior because of the “… satisfaction with future performance captures the critical motivational of affective self-evaluations” (p. 188). Bandura spoke of belief in ways that seem to mean a kind of goal (as in a belief that one is justified in setting high goals), at other times seem to describe perceptions (beliefs about one’s actual effectiveness in achieving a given goal), and at still others suggest imagination (rehearsing or imagining achieving a without actually behaving) (Power, p.52, 1991).

Elliot and Harackiewicz (1994) agreed that perceived competence was an enhancing process for promoting goals. Being successful achieving steady standards, regarding performance observation, enhanced perceived competency.

For example, Bandura ... found that children attaining proximal goals on a math activity perceived themselves as more competent than children not pursuing goals, and they also demonstrated more interest in the previously unenjoyable task (Elliot & Harackiewicz, p. 975, 1994).

Lopez, Lent, Brown, and Gore (1997) discovered that if children and adults participated in enjoyable activities, they were likely to achieve their goals through demonstrating positive academic performance. In order to encourage positive outcomes, giving praise and social persuasion ensured people self confidence in knowing that they can continue achieving their goals. Persuasion could have negative consequences. For instance, if a student was socially influenced to take geometry instead of algebra, he may not academically perform well due to his or her poor intellectual abilities. According to the general social cognitive theory, both ability and self-efficacy percepts are important in complex task performance, with self-efficacy helping to determine how well people use their skills (Lopez, Lent, Brown, & Gore, p. 46, 1997).

Bandura (1997) also cognitively believed that people, having high self efficacy, were determined to believe in their abilities, to plan strategies, anticipate the probable results, and to set goals. Firmly thinking in attaining goals through adjusting base on steady progress caused individuals to be highly motivated. Instead of concentrating on personal imperfections, these individuals thought positively about their aspirations, prepared for difficult challenges, and dedicated time to commit to face their difficult challenges.

Self-efficacy beliefs determine the goals people set for themselves, how much effort they expend, how long they persevere, and how resilient they in the face of failures and setbacks (Bandura, p. 5, 1997).

Importantly, self efficacy controlled emotions in numerous ways. Believing in managing threats made individuals, with high self efficacy, felt less stressed. Second, individuals successfully adapted to threatening environment by maintaining low anxiety and stress due to maintaining social relationships with their peers. This was the key to receiving support in order to enhance their coping mechanisms. Next, they had the ability to overcome obstacles, to be models for others to follow, and to exert more effort to increase their chances of success. Finally, they were in complete control of their thinking patterns. People, having low self efficacy, were prone experiencing depression due to the following:

A person who feels unable to prevent recurrent depressive thoughts ... (b) Low self-efficacy causes the defeat of one’s hopes and the resulting low mood further weakens self efficacy, creating a vicious cycle. (c) People … do not develop the satisfying social relationships that make chronic stress easier to bear (Bandura, p. 6, 1997).

In addition, individuals, with low self efficacy, avoided approaching difficult tasks because they were frightened to fail by only dwelling on their daunting obstacles. Moreover, these people were not committed in achieving their goals, had low expectations, and continued to doubt their capabilities to succeed. Plus, they never experienced satisfaction due to maintaining low self efficacy (Thomas & Mathieu, 1994). Bandura, Pastorelli, Barbaranelli, and Caprara (1996) continued claiming that this type of self efficacy calculated diminishing academic and social activities. As a result, “Failure diminishes motivation and generates despondent mood when people judge when they lack the efficacy to attain difficult standards …” (p. 369) This could possibly lead to depression.

Arnkoff, Glass, and Robinson (1992) admitted that there was a definite relationship between having negative thoughts and anxiety. If individuals felt anxious and had negative thoughts the day before taking an oral examination, they continued to be pessimistic and anxious during the examination. Contrary, if these students thought positively and experienced minimum anxiety one day before taking the same test, they most likely continued being optimistic while maintaining their low anxiety levels during the exam. Thomas and Mathieu (1994) contributed that the students also experienced satisfaction from maintaining high self efficacy.

Nevertheless, anxiety was not linked to self efficacy because if unprepared students were given additional time, they had opportunities to prepare, to become optimistic, and to control their anxiety levels during the examination (Arnkoff, Glass, & Robinson, 1992). These individuals might have felt some satisfaction due to increasing previous low self efficacy (Thomas & Mathieu, 1994).

This finding, along with the lack of a relationship between thoughts and performance, shows the situation-specific nature of the results in studies ... Clearly, research relating cognition, anxiety, and performance in different situations would yield somewhat different results (Arnkoff, Glass, & Robinson, p. 395, 1992).

Based on Earley and Erez (1991), individuals’, who defined goals for themselves, self efficacy were affected. Acceptance and commitment were the two crucial factors in defining goals. This goal setting procedure involved cognitive abilities, which had enormous impact on individuals’ beliefs regarding their capabilities and thoughts (Cervone, Jiwani, & Wood, 1991). Bandura’s social cognitive theory provided individualistic expectations based on social environments (Earley & Erez, 1991).

In conjunction, it gave standards concerning how should individuals evaluate their performance techniques and forming self efficacy. The whole process contained collective or social comparisons, and individualistic past comparisons or other people’s past comparisons. Overall, the external performance combined with the assigned goals affected individuals’ decisions.

According to Prussia and Kinicki (1996), Bandura’s motivation diagram functioned with the group due to collective efficacy. The term referred to group members’ perception capabilities to behave in particular situations. If a group of people imitated positive models, the group was likely to be motivated to master its’ goals due to the following:

feedback activates the hypothesized regulatory process, (b) vicarious experience affects self-efficacy and is a likely antecedent to group efficacy, (c) and initial performance accomplishments are related to efficacy perceptions and subsequent performance (Prussia & Kinicki, p. 189, 1996).

Bandura thought that experiences dramatically affected the individualistic self efficacy development. As a result, it had been empirically proven that modeling behavior improved self efficacy. Also, the self efficacy perceptions were linked to the active accomplishments. Nevertheless, research could not demonstrate that this among groups even though the importance of group success and group modeling had been empirically proven. Moreover, very little research significantly displayed that collective efficacy was related to group failure and success.

However, group effectiveness had been correlated with the collective success and failure. Cognitive and behavioral modeling enhanced the group effectiveness. Exhibiting behaviors that lead to accomplishing goals was referred to behavioral modeling, which was the common type. Having other people listen to one thoughts while completing various tasks was known as cognitive modeling. Based on this, group members, who received positive feedback, behaviorally and cognitively functioned twenty-five percent better than group members obtaining negative feedback.

Bandura and Johnson (1991) found that groups had less trouble making decisions and mastering their goals than individuals. For instance,

This was frustrating. I was beginning to think I was getting better at my job but maybe engineers are just a different breed of worker. If I could fire them or replace them ... but it’s hard to know what to do (Bandura & Johnson, p. 944, 1991).

Due to rigid complexity of groups and their preset rules, individuals experienced difficulties socially adjusting to groups. In some instances, groups favored some individuals’ skills over other individuals’ skills because of their preferred performance. In spite of this, individuals were able to maintain their self efficacy through continuing to develop efficient techniques. They also kept experiencing satisfaction from still being able to perform adequate or better than others.

At first[,] it was very discouraging. The other MBA students seemed much better at it. I kept trying more and more changes but then I tried a few experiments that seem to work. Then I just kept making little changes until I caught up. I think the secret is making just a few small changes after the big adjustment (Bandura & Johnson, p. 945, 1991).

Some individuals, who struggled to achieve goals within groups, experienced low analytic thinking and self appraisal than those who easily mastered goals within groups. Although most individuals could not be productive and successful group members, they still remained committed to their groups. This occurred because the individuals felt compelled to challenge groups’ rigid standards by attempting to improve their thinking skills, behavioral responses, and self efficacy. They were also trying to feel more satisfied through seeking personal achievements.

Although human behavior was occasionally similar to animal behavior, Skinner proved the differences between animal and human behavior (Hayes & Hayes, 1992). Shimp, Childers, and Hightower (1990) stated that learning included changing associations between reinforcement and nonreinforcement. Forgetting meant temporary deactivating any learned behaviors. People completed various behavioral tasks within specific time limits known as schedules of reinforcement (Hayes & Hayes, 1992). Consequently, research demonstrated that fixed schedules indicated people had characteristics similar to animals’ behavioral patterns (Hayes & Hayes, 1992; Shimp, Childers, & Hightower, 1990). For example, human babies’ behavior was more similar to animal than human adult behavior (Hayes & Hayes, 1992). Developmental studies have shown a gradual transition, especially from about age two to age six or seven, in performance from the animal-like performance of infants to the pattern of adults, both in schedule performance (Hayes & Hayes, p. 1389, 1992).

Skinner also formulated a system to analyze verbal behavior based on the speaker’s viewpoint instead of the listener’s viewpoint. He defended this action on multiple grounds, among which were that a complete account of the speaker implies an account of the listener, that an analysis of the listener is unlikely to be empirically productive … that “the behavior of a man as listener is not to be distinguished from other forms of his behavior” (Hayes & Hayes, p. 1384, 1992).

In other words, the listener’s behavior was operant and classical conditioning behavior, which was under very specific speech control. In conjunction, verbal behavior included rule-governed behavior. This behavior was manipulated by a contingency-specifying stimuli. “... Skinner did not distinguish between verbal rules and regularities drawn from other complex antecedents, such as modeling stimuli” (p. 1384). Based on the verbal behavior’s description, it was difficult understanding all the verbal rules because it was used for object orientation instead of psychological functioning.

Eisenberger (1992), and Eisenberger and Cameron (1996) reported that giving rewards for either participating or completing tasks was known as task-contingent rewards. Performance-independent rewards were designed for individuals who only participated in activities. Quality-dependent rewards were given to subjects who performed the assigned task well. Last, completion-dependent reward was offered to people who finished assignments. These rewards did not promote intrinsic motivation, creativity, and self determination. When rewards were provided, people focused more on receiving them than performing and finishing the actual task.

It was conclusive that learning depended on priming, schemas, and classical conditioning (Howard, 1999). In conjunction, thinking was essential for manipulating knowledge. Having prior knowledge affected what could be acquired, what was considered important, what was attended, and what was acquired. Perception was the focal point of prior knowledge necessary for recognizing objects.

Construct and Theories

Skinner believed that

when a person hears a word, some of the functions of that word may depend on the derived stimulus relations sustained between it and other events (Hayes & Hayes, p. 1392, 1992).

If the individual heard the same word in a sentence, he or she had an easier time comprehending the word from contextual control of the other words, the word sequence, paralinguistic cues, nonverbal context, and other events. Comprehending a sentence’s and/or word’s meaning highly demanded the listener to figure out if-then stimulus relations, stimulus relations of difference, and equivalence.

For example, I may “understand” the word fire in the sense that its functions depend in part on the derived relations between it and other events (e.g., words like hot or oxidation). This would represent a different kind of understanding than based on functions of the word that are directly trained (e.g., if fire had ... preceded being burned and elicited emotional reactions through classical conditioning (Hayes & Hayes, p. 1392, 1992).

This example demonstrated direct meaning and verbal meaning, which required the usage of two different psychological processes. Hall (1989) continued saying that typing one sentence demanded knowing volumes of grammar styles and the meanings of words. Chomsy, a researcher, concluded that humans were both creators and readers of the sentence. McElree and Griffith (1995) remarked that writing a sentence neededd the usage of the major syntactic categories (verbs, nouns, adverbs, adjectives, and so on) and constituent structure (proper phrasing). Sematic and pragmatic information provided cues for writing active and passive sentences. Sentential context referred to words inserted in sentences (Greenberg & Koriat, 1991). To avoid composing ambiguous sentences, participants repeatedly practiced writing clearly by following all the rules regarding English (McElree & Griffith, 1995).

Writing documents required student to think aloud (Benton, Corkill, Sharp, Downey, & Khramtsova, 1995). This resulted due to using long term memory and cognitive strategies, forming ideas, translating, and reviewing (Adams, 1991; Kleinman, & Waber, 1994). “In translating, the writers transform ideas into written text, which requires knowledge of vocabulary and of rules of standard language” (Benton, Corkill, Sharp, Downey, & Khramtsova, p. 69, 1995). Goal setting demanded that students how to use their ideas in a meaningful way through the level of abstraction and/or openness (Benton, Corkill, Sharp, Downey, & Khramtsova, 1995; Adams, 1991). Also, they must structure their ideas in a meaningful way to meet the audience’s expectations (Benton, Corkill, Sharp, Downey, & Khramtsova, 1995).

These authors defined discourse knowledge as knowing proper writing techniques such sentence structuring, organizing and structuring text, punctuation, grammar usage, and writing clearly. Adams (1991) stated that there were two kinds of text. Writing, regarding the sequence of events and actions, was called Landscape of Action. Text, dealing with characters’ psychological processes and mental states, was referred to Landscape of Consciousness. Having this knowledge was vital for students to quickly process verbal information into ideas needed to select topics (Benton, Corkill, Sharp, Downey, & Khramtsova, 1995). Students, who knew about hockey, wrote better than students who did not know anything about hockey. If they took interest in English, they learned to write better than those did not have any interest in English. Sadoski, Kealy, Goetz, and Paivio (1997) claimed that students, who utilized a verbal-association to formulate concrete word definitions, wrote better text. They were able to produce meaningful and well structured sentences from their long term memories without having time limits (Sadoski, Kealy, Goetz, & Paivio, 1997; Kleinman, & Waber, 1994). Having excellent vocabulary and reading skills also contributed to good (Cunning & Stanovich, 1991).

... it is assumed that the reader bring to the text his or her expectations, prior knowledge of language structure and content, and cultural background in order to construct an interpretation of the written word as it is being read (Hall, 1989).

Students, with time constraints, could not write polished paragraphs free of syntax errors because they only utilized abstract word definitions (Sadoski, Kealy, Goetz, & Paivio, 1997). Writing abstractly reduced the text quality and induced the writer’s speed. Accordingly, age-related performance differences have been shown to be moderated by such factors as verbally ability, level of education, and motivation of the reader, as well as by characteristics of the ... text and task (Adams, p. 324, 1991).

This viewpoint, regarding aging and difficulties remembering text, was altered by the idea that performance relied on the individual’s task, criterion, and interaction variables. Overall, people tried to remember text by creating a coherent mental image through associating it with real world events (Narvaez, 1998). In other words, schemas, prior knowledge, and cognitive processing were critical for understanding documents according to a researcher named Bartlett. Narvaez, Gleason, Mitchell and Bentley (1999) said that each person had different reading skills due to developmental differences. Comprehension is affected by reading skill tasks such as decoding words and sentences, word regulation, vocabulary, and the ability to integrate the individual meanings of words and sentences into a general understanding (Narvaez, Gleason, Mitchell, & Bentley, p. 478, 1999).

Furthermore, it was conclusive that children understood literature differently than adults. Juveniles had trouble remembering novels and adults had difficulties recalling stories’ themes.

Summary

Based on the current literature, many physical disabled children have been mainstreamed into public school. They successfully adjusted to this learning environment through fully accepting themselves, not blaming themselves for encountering negative experiences, and recognizing that attending public school was a permanent situation. Academic achievement was not associated with physical disability. Both able-bodied and disabled students were equally susceptible to negative thinking that lead to learned helplessness. If they successfully accomplished a series of assignments ranging from easy to difficult, learned helplessness could be overcome.

Bandura’s Observational Theory essentially covered modeling, self efficacy, motivation, and achieving individually or within groups. Positive modeling was preferred to avoid negative thinking. Learned helplessness and depression downgraded self efficacy. Having a poor self efficacy indicated that the individual believed he or she was a failure. Motivation stimulated high self efficacy and learning. People, with high self efficacy, were capable of making decisions, setting goals, and displaying commitment. Achieving independently and within groups were similar.

Skinner’s theory was animal orientated. Nevertheless, he also experimented with the human population. It was evident that human infants’ behavior was similar to animal behavior. Providing people with rewards did not promote motivation and learning. They processed incoming information through priming, schemas, classical conditioning, reinforcements, thinking, prior knowledge, and perceptions. The listener’s operant behavior was emphasized more than the speaker’s operant behavior during conversations. In addition, people remembered sentences by focusing on single words.

Writing required individuals to utilize long-term memory. This type of memory was used to cognitively absorb all incoming data through categorizing, prior knowledge, remembering, and alike. Constructing coherent sentences demanded learning appropriate phrasing, grammar usage, word selection, numerous vocabulary lists, and punctuation. This was necessary for composing manuscripts. Landscape of Consciousness and Landscape of Action were the kinds of writing that made selecting topics easier. Furthermore, being interested in a certain topic promoted good writing. Organizing, planning, structuring, and reviewing meaningful text needed one to apply the verbal-association instead of the abstract strategy. Reading also contributed to writing because it enhanced vocabulary skills and connected individuals with reality and literature.

Conclusion

Physically handicapped second graders, attending Vermont’s elementary school, could benefit from Skinner’s and Bandura’s theories. Maintaining high self efficacy, imitating positive models, and being motivated were the factors needed to achieve. Being able to process information through schemas, priming, perceptions, reinforcements, and thinking also played a vital in developing basic writing skills. Having the abilities to achieve and write could possibly make these second graders good writers. However, they would not write well by being obedient to time limitations and rewards.

In my opinion, they should also learn appropriate techniques for expressing their thoughts without being inhibited. Traditionally, Carl Rogers’ person-centered therapy had been utilized in only counseling sessions and to encourage people to vent their emotions. If disabled students were asked to vent their feelings and to openly share anything, they might be willing to verbalize their thoughts. When they verbally expressed themselves, they spoke in phrases and\or sentences. Teachers should coax them to speak in complete sentences without inferring too much in the conversations. After having some discussions, teachers should begin to instruct them to write a few sentences, paragraphs, and brief compositions concerning what was discussed in the previous conversations. To avoid abstract writing, teachers must not threaten the students with time limits or rewards.

This teaching method may be unorthodox in public school settings. Hence, if educators could successfully stimulate second graders in writing, composition and reading scores might dramatically improve. Personally, I viewed this style as an enjoyable activity. When I attended the second grade, my teacher guided me and my other classmates though many delightful discussions. Being able to talk about anything and being listened to made me feel important. After learning how to write, I composed a short story about Debbie Boone’s song entitled You Light Up My Life. When I received positive feedback from my teacher, I felt extremely happy and had a burning passion to become a famous author.

Adams, C. (1991). Qualitative age differences in memory for text: A life-span developmental perspective. Psychology and Aging, 6(3). 323-326.

Arnkoff, D. B., Glass, C. R., & Robinson, A. S. (1992). Cognitive processes, anxiety, and performance on doctoral dissertation on oral examination. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(3). 382-388.

Baldwin, T. T. (1992). Effects of alternative modeling strategies on outcomes of interpersonal-skills training. Journal of Applied Psychology, 77(2). 147-154.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy. Harvard Mental Letter, 13(9). 4-7.

Bandura, A., & Johnson, F. J. (1991). Self-regulatory mechanisms governing the impact of social comparison on complex decision making. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 60(6). 941-951.

Bandura, A., Pastorelli, C., Barbaranelli, C., & Caprara, G. V. (1996). Mechanisms of moral disengagement in the exercise of moral agency. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71(2). 364-374.

Benton, S. L., Corkill, A. J., Sharp, J. M., Downey, R. G., & Khramtsova, I. (1995). Knowledge, interest, and narrative writing. Journal of Educational Psychology, 87(1). 66-79.

Cervone, D., Jiwani, N., & Wood, R. (1991). Goal setting and the differential influence of self-regulatory processes on complex decision-making performance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61(2). 257-266.

Cunning, A. E., & Stanovich, K. E. (1991). Tracking the unique effects of print exposure in children associations with vocabulary, general knowledge, and spelling. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82(2). 264-274.

Earley, C. F., & Erez, M. (1991). Time-dependency effects of goals and norms: The role of cognitive processing on motivation models. Journal of Applied Psychology, 76(5). 717-724.

Eisenberger, R., & Cameron, J. (1996). Detrimental effects of reward: Reality or myth. American Psychologist, 51(11). 1153-1166.

Eisenberger, R. (1992). Learned industrious. Psychological Review, 99(2). 248-267.

Elliot, A. J., & Harackiewicz, J. M. (1994). Goal setting, achievement orientation, and intrinsic motivation: A mediational analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 66(5). 968-990.

Elliot, A., & Sheldon, K. M. (1997). Avoidance achievement motivation: A personal goal analysis. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 73(1). 171-185.

Greenberg, S. N., & Koriat, A. (1991). The missing-letter effect for common function for words depends on their linguistic function in the phrase. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 17(6). 1051-1061.

Hall, W. S. (1989). Reading comprehension. American Psychologist, 44(2). 157-161.

Hayes, S. C., & Hayes, L. J. (1992). Verbal relations and the evolution of behavior analysis. American Psychologist, 47(11). 1383-1395.

Howard, R. W. (1999). Reconceptualing learning. Review of General Psychology, 3(4). 251-263.

Kleinman, S. N., & Waber, D. P. (1994). Prose memory strategies in children treated for Leukemia: A story grammar analysis of the Anna Thompson passage. Neuropsychology, 8(3). 464-470.

Lopez, F. G., Lent, R. W., Brown, S. D., & Gore, P. A. (1997). Role of social cognitive expectations in high school students’ mathematical related interest and performance. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44(1). 44-52.

Mallinckrodt, B. (1992). Childhood emotional bonds with parents, development of adult social competencies, and availability of social support. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 39(4). 453-461.

Martinez, R., & Sewell, K. W. (2000). Explanatory style as a predictor of college performance in students with physical disabilities. Journal of Rehabilitation, 66(1). 30-36.

McElree, B.,& Griffith, T. (1995). Syntactic and thematic processing in sentence comprehension: Evidence for a temporal dissociation. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 21(1). 134-157.

Narvaez, D. (1998). The influence of moral schemas on the reconstruction of moral narratives in eight graders and college students. Journal of Educational Psychology, 90(1). 13-24.

Narvaez, D., Gleason, T., Mitchell, C., & Bentley, J. (1999). Moral theme comprehension in children. Journal of Educational Psychology, 91(3). 477-487.

Phillips, J. M., & Gully, S. M. (1997). Role of goal orientation, ability, need for achievement, and locus of control in self-efficacy and goal-setting process. Journal of Applied Psychology, 82(5). 792-803.

Power, W. T. (1991). Commentary on Bandura’s “human agency” American Psychologist, 46(2). 151-153.

Prussia, G. E., & Kinicki, A. J. (1996). A motivational investigation of group effectiveness using social cognitive theory. Journal of Applied Psychology, 81(2). 187-198.

Sadoski, M., Kealy, W. A., Goetz, E. T., & Paivio, A. (1997). Concreteness and image effects in the written composition of definitions. Journal of Educational Psychology, 89(3). 518-526.

Shimp, C. P., Childers, L. J., & Hightower, F. A. (1990). Local patterns in human operant behavior and a behaving model to interrelate animal and human performances. Journal of Experimental Psychology, 16(2). 200-212.

Sing-Fai, T. (1998). Comparing the self concepts of persons with and without physical disabilities. Journal of Psychology, 132. 78-86.