Evaluating physically disabled adults' and employers' career attitudes was the purpose for conducting this study. Seventy-two disabled participants, 34 males and 38 females from 17 to 69 years old, completed a 20-minute survey on electronic mail. This survey involved six demographic items, 10 questions taken from the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and five items taken from the Subjective Probability Questionnaire. Nineteen employers, 12 females and 7 males from 30 to 63 years old, took a 15-minute survey through electronic mail. The survey contained three demographic questions and 26 items taken from the Disability Rights Attitude Scale. Results did not support the findings in the literature, which reflected a number of problems between employers and disabled employees. Results reported in raw scores that reflected no evidence employment, self-esteem, and depression scores within the disabled population. Results also showed no evidence among hiring preference and job accommodation scores within the population. Although the results failed to show problems regarding career attitudes, the relevant literature stated that there is an assortment of obstacles preventing employers and disabled employees from working together. Future studies should include larger disabled and employer samples, additional demographic items concerning transportation and types of employment, and more appropriate testing instruments.

ATTITUDES EMPLOYERS REGARDING PHYSICALLY DISABLED EMPLOYEES

by

Yvonne M. Singer

B.A., Monmouth University, 1999

Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of
Masters of Science
Psychology

Walden University
May 2002

This thesis is dedicated to my loving parents, Dr. Judith Nye, Dr. Solomon Schuck, Andrew Bartlett, and myself.

CONGRATULATIONS,
You made it this far!
Congratulations for every thing you are!
When you think you're nowhere,
doing nothing,
To me, you are a shining star!
Congratulations!
You made it this far!
Deborah Henson-Conant

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY
Introduction
History Perspective
Problem Statement
Purpose
Research Questions
Theoretical Foundations
Implications of Education
Insight
Significance of the Study
Limitations
Definitions
Summary

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW
ADA
Employers View Disabled Employees
Difficulty in Obtaining Positions
Unemployment
Summary

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHOD
Problem Statement
Research Questions
Design
Samples
Procedures and Measurement
Data Analysis
Summary

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Results
Discussion
Summary

CHAPTER 5: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION
Summary
Conclusion

REFERENCES

Appendix A: Case Study 1: Minaudo

Appendix B: Case Study 2: Callahan

Appendix C: Demographic Questions for Disabled Participants

Appendix D: Permission to use the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Appendix E: Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale

Appendix F: Permission to use the Subjective Probability Questionnaire

Appendix G: Subjective Probability Questionnaire

Appendix H: Demographic Questions for Non-disabled Participants

Appendix I: Permission to use THE DISABILITY RIGHTS ATTITUDE SCALE (DRAS): ADMINISTRATION AND SCORING MANUAL

Appendix J: The Disability Rights Attitude Scale (DRAS) Administration and Scoring Manual

Appendix K: Table: Age of Disabled Participants

CURRICULUM VITAE

Career attitudes of physically handicapped adults and employers play a crucial role in enhancing human relations among the general public and working professionals. People are becoming more physically disabled every day in America (Kemp & Malinkrodt, 1999), and they comprise the largest minority group having difficulty seeking employment (Brantlinger, 1999; Macan & Hayes, 1995). Employers have difficulty looking past physical disabilities and noticing individuals' capabilities (Farkas, 1989; Jackson, 2000).

Currently, disabled people have more employment, educational, and social opportunities (Foote, 2000). The public assumes that most disabled individuals are employed due to the ADA and all of the advances in technology (Klimoski & Palmer, 1999). Unless people are handicapped, they will never experience all the hidden prejudices concerning employment (O'Keefe, 1993). In spite of the history of discrimination, numerous laws have been passed (Farkas, 1989; Winzer, 1993). Two case studies, Minaudo (see Appendix A) and Callahan (see Appendix B), demonstrate that motivation and education are needed in attempts to secure employment.

Recent studies show that the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1943, Rehabilitation Act of 1973, ADA. of 1990, Workforce Investment Act, Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, and Public Law 94-142 legally state that the disabled population needs to be employed as well as educated (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000; Brantlinger, 1999; Farkas, 1989; Finney, 2001; Imel, 2000; Moakley, 2000; Sair, 2001; Winzer, 1993). State Developmental Disabilities, Vocational Rehabilitation, and Mental Retardation Agencies' employment programs fail to assist clients in gaining employment (Foley, Butterworth, & Heller, 2000; Brieout & Bentley, 2000). Only a small percentage of young employers hire people with disabilities. Indeed, the majority of disabled applicants remain unemployed (Buys & Rennie, 2001; Wanberg, Rotundo, and Kanfer, 1999).

Throughout history, disabled individuals faced societal prejudices (Li & Moore, 1998) and during the late 18th century, numerous organizations developed to assist the growing disabled population (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993). After 1800, the almshouse movement emerged to the United States known as the poor relief policy (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993) and provided shelter for the elderly, the disabled, and the poor. During the 1920s and 1930s, President Herbert Hoover held a conference on children and protection (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). An extensive report, called the Children's Charter, focused on special education, job training, counseling, job and social placement, and occupational therapy for the mentally retarded (Winzer, 1993).

By October 1942, reports estimated that 3 million disabled men and women were engaged in the war industry throughout the country (Winzer, 1993). Employers hired disabled people due to the Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1943. During the 1950s and 1960s, Congress granted mentally retarded and physically handicapped people constitutional rights such as due process (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). The government supported special education, vocational education and rehabilitation, and other programs needed to assist unemployed disabled youths and adults (Francis & Silvers, 2000; Winzer, 1993).

Question #1 What discrepancy will be reflected between the hiring attitudes of older employers as compared to the younger?

Question #2 In examining depression of both disabled male and female respondents, which will indicate the greater incidence of depression?

Question #3 Who will have the more difficult experience in gaining meaningful employment?

Although social cognitive theory was used for individual motivation, it also focused on group motivation (Prussia & Kinicki, 1996). Bandura believed that motivation measured individuals' effort needed to master goals (Power, 1991). Lopez, Lent, Brown, and Gore (1997) found that if children and adults participated in enjoyable activities, these participants could achieve their goals through demonstrating positive academic performance.

Managing threats made individuals, with high self-efficacy, feel less stressed (Bandura, 1997). Bandura felt that individuals adapted to threatening environments by maintaining low anxiety and stress due to maintaining social relationships with their peers. The individuals also overcame obstacles, became models for others to follow, and exerted more effort to increase their chances of success. Finally, the participants in his study had more control of personal thinking patterns. People with low self-efficacy experienced depression due to feeling helpless in stopping repeating depressive thoughts, continuous negative moods and diminishing hopes, and unsatisfied about relationships that lessened chronic stress (Bandura, 1997; Cantanzaro, 1993). They avoided approaching difficult tasks because subjects were afraid to fail by only dwelling on daunting obstacles. Arnkoff, Glass, and Robinson (1992) noted a relationship between having negative thoughts and anxiety. Anxiety was not linked to self-efficacy because if unprepared students were given additional time, pupils had opportunities to prepare, to become optimistic, and to control personal anxiety levels during an examination (Arnkoff, Glass, & Robinson, 1992). These individuals felt some satisfaction due to increasing previous low self-efficacy (Thomas & Mathieu, 1994).

From 1910 to 1920, all disabled children had opportunities to attend local public school; furthermore, juveniles no longer were isolated in Almshouses (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). They were segregated with the public and other children (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Experts taught public schools how to handle and instruct children who were physically handicapped, speech or visually impaired, mentally delinquent, deaf, mentally ill, and mentally retarded (Yell & Rogers, 1998; Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993).

Advocates strongly believed it was necessary to mainstream disabled children because youngsters could benefit from attending integrated classes (Yell & Rogers, 1998). If the public schools offered more individualized attention by providing remedial instruction, then disabled students could have experienced learning (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993). After the Children Charter was published, special education declined due to the Great Depression (Yell & Rogers, 1998). Teachers failed to create challenging, academic curriculums due to not being motivated to teach (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Therefore, disabled children were no longer placed in regular classes (Yell & Rogers, 1998).

Special education teachers instructed disabled children in the public schools' basements, closets, and hallways (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Since these children had been socially isolated from other children and outside world, negative stereotypes and attitudes developed (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). For example, pupils ignored and ridiculed disabled students. If disabled students continued to be mainstreamed, challenging, positive learning lessons could have been experienced (Yell & Rogers, 1998). Pupils attended special education classes because educators thought that these learners had difficulties competing with children. If other students had been given the opportunity to socially interact with disabled peers, these negative attitudes may not have been so persistent (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998).

Congress passed Public Law 85-926, which gave federal grants to colleges (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). This law required that professors trained students to become special education teachers. In October 1963, Public Law 88-164 was signed by President Kennedy (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Public Law 88-164 stated that all physically disabled, mentally retarded, deaf, speech and visually impaired, and hard of hearing children must be educated (Yell & Rogers, 1998; Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993). In 1966, Congress passed Public Law 90-170, which required that all disabled children had to participate in physical education classes (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). In 1968, Public Law 90-576 gave universities and state agencies federal grants to provide various educational opportunities for the mental retarded (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Public Law 91-230 was known as the Education of the Handicapped Act, which was passed in 1970 (Winzer, 1993). It reinforced the federal government to continue educating all disabled children (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998).

Educators, regular classroom teachers, and special education teachers believed that disabled children should not be mainstreamed into public schools because research demonstrated students benefited more from special than standard education (Weisz & Tomkins, 1998; Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Congress passed Public Law 94-142 in 1975 (Winzer, 1993; Yell & Rogers, 1998). Placing disabled students in the least restrictive classroom environment with other students meant mainstreaming (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000; Winzer, 1993).

Other children still had difficulties accepting disabled peers (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000; McHale & Gamble, 1989). "Personal contact with the disabled may either substantially improve or worsen attitudes, depending on the quality of the previous interaction" (Reynolds & Mann, 1987, p. 150). It was essential to educate regular classroom teachers and students about how to treat and make appropriate accommodations for all disabled students (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000; Slavin, 1994). Hollon (1993) estimated that approximately 11% of Americans experienced depression and learned helplessness. Martinez and Sewell (2000) documented that mainstreamed physically disabled students experienced explanatory style. This referred to how students view themselves when adapting to bad events. "Whether an individual perceives these occurrences in an adaptive or maladaptive manner can profoundly influence the ... quality of his or life" (Martinez & Sewell, 2000, p. 31). If students could not adapt to the learning environment, learned helplessness may be experienced (Elliot, Uswatte, Lewis, & Palmattier, 2000).

Elliot and Sheldon (1997) added that learned helplessness and pessimistic thinking lead to avoidance achievement motivation. Fear of failing a task was linked to avoiding goal mastery. Avoidance regulation referred to experiencing low perceived competence, high anxiety, and feeling physically unwell. However, Elliot, Herrick, and Witty (1992) claimed that nondepressed adults, with severe disabilities, had more effective problem solving skills than depressed, severely disabled adults. Obtaining moral support and reassurance motivated nondepressed participants to reduce stress levels. These college-aged adults also had a positive attitude and continued striving to be productive as well as successful members in society.

Many disabled students, mainstreamed into regular classes in 1975, had negative self images and low self-esteem problems (Reynolds & Mann, 1987). Since pupils had difficulties socializing with their peers and completing class assignments, disabled individuals often felt like failures. Reynolds and Mann (1987) commented that students had positive attitudes and were more determined to overcome their obstacles than disabled students. Developing and maintaining positive attitudes were critical so that disabled students could become well adjusted, working class, successful citizens (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000).

All handicapped children matured into disabled adults. Without receiving a high school diploma, employers could not even consider interviewing them (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000; Wanberg, Rotundo, & Kanfer, 1999). Therefore, it was important for disabled children and adults to live in noninstitutionalized environments, to receive public education, and to experience motivation (Gortmaker, Homer, Perrin, & Weitzman, 1993; Huang & McCubbin, 1989; Lopez, Lent, Brown, & Gore, 1997). If this was not established, it was probable that they had extreme difficulties in obtaining employment (Huang & McCubbin, 1989).

This study attempted to show the attitude of these employers to disabled persons. The investigator added the following new information. The Vocational Rehabilitation Act of 1943, Rehabilitation Act of 1973, ADA. of 1990, Workforce Investment Act, Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999, and Public Law 94-142 legally stated that the disabled population needs to be employed as well as educated (Farkas, 1989; Winzer, 1993; Brantlinger, 1999; Imel, 2000; Finney, 2001; Sair, 2001; Moakley, 2000; Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000). State Developmental Disabilities, Vocational Rehabilitation, and Mental Retardation Agencies' employment programs failed to assist clients in gaining employment (Brieout & Bentley, 2000; Foley, Butterworth, & Heller, 2000). Only a small percentage of young employers hired people with disabilities. Nevertheless, the majority of disabled applicants remained unemployed (Buys & Rennie, 2001; Wanberg, Rotundo, & Kanfer, 1999).

In Sample 1, the data were skewed because the sample (n = 72) was small. Second, the disabled participants lived in the United States and were graduate students. Third, they were not depressed. The investigator utilized the wrong testing instrument for accessing depression in adults. The Subjective Probability Questionnaire was for measuring adolescents' depression and its one-year test-retest reliability was .40 (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Rohde, 1995).

… [D]epression: (a) depressed mood, (b) depressive syndromes, and (c) clinical depression. … [Depressed moods are] periods of sadness or unhappy moods at various points in his or her life. ... [Depressive syndrome] has identified a syndrome of complaints that include both anxiety and depression and is based on symptoms such as feels lonely; cries; fears doing bad things; feels the need to be perfect; feels unloved; feels worthless, nervous, fearful, guilty, self-conscious, suspicious, or sad; and worries. … [Clinical depression means] (a) depressed mood or irritable mood most of the day (b) decreased interest in pleasurable activities, (c) changes in weight or perhaps, failure to make necessary weight gains in adolescence, (d) sleep problems, (e) psychomotor agitation or retardation, fatigue of worthlessness or abnormal amount of guilt, (h) reduced concentration and decision-making ability, and (i) repeated suicidal ideation, attempts, or plans of suicide (Brooks-Gunn, Compas, Ey, Grant, Peterson, & Stemmler, 1993, p. 156).

The ADA defines disability … The person must have a physical or mental impairment that substantially limits one or more of the individual’s major life activities; or, the person must have a record of …. a[n] impairment; or, the person must be regarded as having such an impairment (Foote, 2000, p. 191; Blanck & Berven, 1999, p. 18).

Non-disabled: individuals do not have physical and/or mental impairments (Jackson, 2000).

Older employers: individuals, between the ages of forty-eight and sixty-three, hire job applicants (Crocker & Major, 1999).

Reasonable accommodations: inexpensive changes occurring in the job environment, which enables employees to successfully perform work assignments (Jackson, 2000).

Self-esteem: how the person views his or her self worth (Brown, Colins, & Schmidt, 1988).

Chapter 1 described the effect of employers can have on physically disabled employees. This concern was addressed in the problem statement. The purpose of the study was to shed light on career attitudes among employers and physically disabled adults in an attempt to reduce their unemployment problems. Four research questions guided the study. Bandura's social cognitive theory provided the theoretical foundation for this work. Two case studies illustrated that education and motivation were necessary in attempt to become employed. This information was needed to understand the following topics presented in the study.

Chapter 2 includes the Literature Review, which identifies many of the problems faced by the disabled. Chapter 3 outlines the methodology and two surveys delivered to both the disabled and employers. Chapter 4 depicts the results. Chapter 5 relates to the conclusions and recommendations.

Foote (2000) reported that President George Bush signed and passed the ADA (ADA) of 1990. Originally, the ADA borrowed some information from the Rehabilitation Act of 1993 according to Foote. This act explained that employers must not discriminate against disabled individuals (Blanck & Berven, 1999; Foote, 2000). The United States Supreme Court and Equal Employment Opportunity Commission reinforced the ADA (Foote, 2000). If applicants did not obtain medical documentation concerning disabilities, applicants could not benefit from the ADA (Blanck & Berven, 1999; Foote, 2000). The ADA includes the following five Titles: Telecommunications, Local and State Government Services, Public and Private Services, Public and Private Accommodations, and Miscellaneous Provisions. Based on the ADA, employers changed procedures, rules, policies, and provided adaptive equipment. Removing all transportation, communication, and architectural obstacles was another requirement. Foote (2000) discussed that employers must obtain disabled employees' resumes to decide if the applicants could be hired.

If employers hired disabled employees, employers must provide reasonable accommodations after assessing the applicants' needs (Foote, 2000; Francis & Silvers, 2000). Blanck and Berven (1999) said disabled employees could prove discrimination through demonstrating that their handicaps existed, employees had excellent job performances, and employers failed to provide reasonable accommodations. Even though disabled individuals were legally recognized as productive community members, society still did not identify these people as a homogenous group (Backenroth, 1996; Francis & Silvers, 2000).

Hernandez, Keys, Balcazar, and Drum (1998) and Jackson (2000) stated that the ADA of 1990 was revised from the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 and Civil Rights Act of 1964. Foote (2000) discovered that the ADA intended to improve employment conditions for people with physical and mental handicaps. However, "Public attitudes may pose significant barriers to implementing the ADA provisions, and thus, may constrain the life choices available to rehabilitation clients" (Hernandez, Keys, Balcazar, & Drum, 1998, p. 204). Employers were more willing to hire physical or sensory handicapped applicants rather than emotional or cognitive disabled applicants (Francis & Silvers, 2000).

The ADA was not an entitlement law where public funds were spent on disability services; however, universities could be sued for failing to follow regulations and were being discriminatory (Brantlinger, 1999). Klimoski and Palmer (1999) claimed that employers became more motivated to hire disabled workers knowing that the law was reinforced. Colbridge (2000) claimed that the Equal Employment Opportunities Commission reinforced the ADA. Any disabled person could file complaints concerning discrimination to the commission. Huebner, Thomas, and Berven (1999) concluded that the ADA ensured all disabled workers would receive equal treatment, which promoted acceptance.

Although the ADA should have assisted disabled people to gain employment, employers judged these applicants' physical disabilities instead of performance (Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998). Jackson (2000) claimed that employers thought that disabled people were less productive and dependable than other individuals. Employers' judgments were subjective instead of objective (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000). Colella, DeNisi, and Varma (1998) commented that employers would hire an applicant with chronic back pain rather than an applicant with AIDS. Even though employers preferred physically disabled applicants over mentally retarded applicants, many physically disabled employees still were not hired due to personal physical appearances (Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998). Gilbride (2000) argued that some employers liked to hire mentally retarded applicants over physically handicapped ones.

"Stereotypic fit between physically disabled and job may be poor, and ... personnel judgments about a person with a physical disability may be ... biased" (Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998, p. 104). Foote (2000) further stated that an employer did not hire a highly intelligent female with cerebral palsy due to the woman's speech impediment and involuntary movements. This female and many others, with difficulties gaining careers, were labeled as work disabled claimed Backenroth (1996). Botuck, Levy, and Rimmerman (1998) documented that most disabled applicants were unemployed due to collecting social security insurance, having inappropriate social skills, poor job skills, transportation difficulties, not being educated, and receiving poor job supervision and training.

Employers discriminated in the same manner as the general public (Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998; Crocker & Major, 1999). Anderson and Antonak (1992) admitted that adults felt uncomfortable socializing with disabled peers with speech impediments. Backenroth (1996) said that intolerant, employers usually maintained negative attitudes toward employing the disabled. "There is no doubt that prejudice and discrimination have substantial negative social, economical, political, and psychological consequences" (Crocker & Major, 1999, p. 609).

Seventy-eight percent of disabled unemployed participants wanted to work (O'Keefe, 1993). Respondents could not obtain jobs due to not being exposed to social, education, public services and transportation, communication, and economic opportunities. Architectural and attitudinal obstacles also prevented participants from being productive members of society. For instance, one female who had severe arthritis was not hired because the employer believed that consumers should not have to see her (O'Keefe, 1993). It was probable that disabled respondents experienced depression and low self-esteem from feeling inadequate. According to Backenroth (1996), this was how disabled applicants interpreted and perceived situations, which determined applicants' behavior. Discrimination against this population was also connected to the fear of contracting one's disability (Akey, Marquis, & Ross, 2000). Glueckauf and Quittner (1992) agreed that employers felt anxious when interacting with disabled applicants; furthermore, employers avoided these encounters.

"People with disabilities are at a disadvantage .... Approximately half of adults have household incomes of $15,000 or less compared with 25 percent of persons without disabilities" (O'Keefe, 1993, p. 4). Macan and Hayes (1995), and Troy and Cooper (1997) found that there were more than 18 million disabled Americans. Twenty-eight percent of disabled individuals between ages of 16 and 64 were poor compared with 9% of poor individuals (O'Keefe, 1993). Although the ADA promoted career opportunities, this law could not improve disabled individuals' personal lives such as providing adequate housing.

When disabled participants were hired, employers were highly educated and young in age (Backenroth, 1996). Employers' tests measured job skills, knowledge, and abilities needed for positive job performances (Huebner, Thomas, & Berven, 1999). According to the ADA, if examinations did not represent workers' skills and knowledge, tests were invalid. Employers must gather work samples to determine if applicants were eligible for hiring. This was known as making reasonable accommodations during the hiring process (Huebner, Thomas, & Berven, 1999). Once disabled employees passed the tests, interested employers required applicants' medical records.

If handicapped individuals obtained jobs, many bosses made appropriate accommodations to ensure that individuals could complete necessary work assignments (Backenroth, 1996; Jackson, 2000). Huebner, Thomas, and Berven (1999) and Jackson (2000) said that reasonable accommodations meant reducing employment obstacles, which allowed disabled workers to complete on an equal level with workers. Employers consulted with employees when deciding what types of accommodations were essential (Huebner, Thomas, & Berven, 1999). For instance, computers might be implemented so that disabled workers could type efficiently (Klimoski & Palmer, 1999; Huebner, Thomas, & Berven, 1999). Establishing positive social interactions between disabled employees and employers stimulated the hiring process (Backenroth, 1996). Reid, Parsons, and Green (1995) and Rogan, Banks, and Howard (2000) indicated that some severely physically disabled workers had low-level jobs regarding paperwork tasks. Consequently, employers were also willing to only make accommodations for applicants (Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998).

Gilbride (2000) conducted a telephone survey in a Midwestern state regarding employers hiring handicapped applicants.

When asked if they had “ever hired a person with a disability before,” 55 (89%) of the Midwestern employers and 47 (80%) of Southeastern employers responded affirmatively. Employers who responded that they had hired a person with a disability before were then asked if they know “the person had a disability before you hired him/her.” In response, 44 (80%) of the Midwestern employers and 47 (100%) of the Southeastern employers responded they did not know (Gilbride, 2000, p. 21).

Both midwestern and southeastern employers hired applicants having the following disabilities: Blind, mobility, deaf, psychiatric, cerebral palsy, diabetes, brain injury, amputee, and learning disabilities.

When asked if they had “provided accommodations for employees with disabilities.” 38 (72%) of the Midwestern employers and 21 (38%) of Southeastern employers reported that they provided included a TTY; adjoining the height of office equipment such chairs, desks, vending machines; providing accessible parking. … In the Midwestern state 46 (96%) of the employers and in the Southeastern state 47 (100%) of the employers responded yes when asked “are you glad you hired a person with a disability” (Gilbride, 2000, p. 22).

Rogan, Banks, and Howard (2000) documented that some employers were willing to accommodate handicapped employees' after attending diversity and disability awareness classes. These employers learned that no two employees with cerebral palsy require the same accommodations.

Carter (1998) stated that there were many different kinds of cerebral palsy ranging from mild to severe. If the individual had a very mild case of cerebral palsy, his or her symptoms were only observed during stressful events or specific activities. Chimarusti (1999) noted that 20% of participants outgrew their mild cerebral palsy due to time and therapy. In some instances, cerebral palsy was so severe that most voluntary movements could not be performed. Nelson and Grether (2000) claimed that the symptoms vary from one individual to another.

An individual with cerebral palsy may have difficulty with fine motor tasks, such as writing or cutting with scissors; experience trouble with maintaining balance and walking; or be affected by involuntary movements, such as uncontrollable writhing motion of the hands or drooling (Nelson & Grether, 2000, p. 2).

Boswell, Dawson, and Heininger (1998) discovered that the majority of adults with disabilities felt

I have found that I can achieve as much as before my disability … that increases my quality of life a great deal. When I don’t have anything to give, when I’m able to contribute, that’s going to be the end (of quality of life) (p. 28).

This statement was documented after these individuals sought careers involving assisting other physically handicapped people and creating additional, needed changes. Overall, "People with disabilities often find employment difficult to attain and feel excluded from the labor market because of their disabilities" (Gilbride, 2000, p. 17). Employers with positive attitudes hired more applicants than employers with negative attitudes (Backenroth, 1996; Brieout & Bentley, 2000).

Rohe and Krause (1999) found that more disabled men had careers than disabled women. Macan and Hayes (1995) discovered that employers would rather interview than hire disabled applicants. Providing reasonable accommodations was deemed a problem. Brieout and Bentley (2000) found that interviewing strongly influenced employers' hiring decisions. Interviewers had more preinterview impressions and postinterview evaluations when interacting with disabled applicants than with other applicants (Macan & Hayes, 1995).

During the last 15 years, state developmental disabilities and mental retardation agencies expanded their employment programs to better serve growing mental retardation population (Foley, Butterworth, & Heller, 2000; Whitney-Thomas & Timmons, 1999).

… (MR/DD) agencies have reported that the number of individuals supported in integrated employment increased from 32,471 to 98,315 between fiscal year … 1998 and FY 1996 and the percentage of individuals with developmental disabilities closed into integrated employment by vocational rehabilitation … agencies increased from 74% [10,000] in … 1985 to 86% [almost 140,000] in … 1995 (Foley, Butterworth, & Heller, 2000, p. 38).

However, these job programs did not assist handicapped people in seeking job positions. It was evident that handicapped applicants could not gain employment (Brieout & Bentley, 2000). In 1991, the United States spent over two billion dollars on vocational rehabilitation agencies every year; one third of disabled individuals still could not be employed (Buys & Rennie, 2001).

It is estimated that only about 29 percent of people with disabilities are employed, compared with 79 percent of the general population (National Organization on Disabilities [NOD]. Nearly 10 percent of U.S. citizens between ages of 21 and 64 have a severe disability. Among people with severe disabilities of various kinds, only 10 percent are integrated into the work force. Moreover, many people with severe disabilities who manage to secure as underpaid and underemployed People with disabilities constitute the most financially disadvantaged minority group and are deprived of the many psychosocial benefits (Brieout & Bentley, 2000, p. 88).

Wanberg, Rotundo, and Kanfer (1999) claimed that the majority of handicapped individuals remained unemployed due to living on Social Security Income. In order to qualify for Social Security Income, the person had to have medical documentation regarding his or her physical / mental disabilities (Rupp & Davies, 2000). Also, he or she had to be between the ages of 18 and 64.

Eligibility for SSI disability status depends on means testing (assets or income), but there is no work experience requirement. … Applicants who earn above the “Substantial Gainful Activity (SGA)” level (currently $700 per month) are automatically denied benefits (Rupp & Davies, 2000, p. 2-3).

Disabled people could not obtain jobs due to losing their Social Security Income's benefits. However, if they received appropriate incentives and support, they would be able to become employed. Even though they depended on the government for financial support, they were still motivated to gain employment (Wanberg, Rotundo, & Kanfer, 1999). Finney (2001) and Dawis (1996) added that they preferred to work and to pay taxes.

… motivated to work as means of reducing [the] economic hardship [that] has its origins in situational conditions, and its typically inferred from current or anticipated life difficulties in one’s current household and associated financial problems related to maintaining adequate housing, food, and medical attention (Wanberg, Rotundo, & Kanfer, 1999, p. 899).

These people were also motivated to seek employment due to maintaining high self-efficacy. According to Katzell and Thompson (1990), knowing that earning reasonable salaries stimulated them to continue their job searches.

Self-efficacy beliefs determine the goals people set for themselves, how much effort they expend, how long they persevere, and how resilient they in the face of failures and setbacks (Bandura, 1997, p. 3).

In conjunction, hearing praise from employers and fellow employees enhanced their positive self images, which strengthened high self-efficacy (Katzell & Thompson, 1990). Bos and Miedema (2000) and Kiel (1999) contributed that self-actualized, disabled applicants tend to demonstrate higher levels of commitment. Nevertheless, "individuals who report low levels of job-search self-efficacy ... [do not] look for work" (Wanberg, Rotundo, & Kanfer, 1999, p. 902). This could have happened due to having lower levels of commitment and being depressed (Bos & Miedema, 2000). Sing-Fai (1998) documented that

individuals with physical disabilities generally lack positive experiences because the disability places them in a stigmatized and disadvantaged social position; thus, they are predisposed to feel inferior to able bodied people (p. 82).

Stajkovic and Luthans (1998) and Cropanzano and Wright (1999) claimed that employees would rather hire applicants with high self-efficacy than applicants with low self-efficacy. These authors concluded that job performance and self-efficacy were significantly correlated. Finney (2001) argued that if they enter the work place, they would lose their Medicare /Medicaid Health Insurance.

Today, more than 7.5 million disabled Americans receive cash benefits from SSI and SSDI. Disability benefits spending for these two programs totals $73 billion a year. If only 1 percent-or $75,000-of these SSI and SSDI beneficiaries were to become employed, federal savings in disability benefits would total $3.5 billion over the worklife of the beneficiaries (Finney, 2001, p. 1-2).

In 1998, Congress passed the Workforce Investment Act (Finney, 2001; Imel, 2000). This law gave disabled employers training grants, which enabled workers to choose the type of job training they need and where to receive the training (Finney, 2001). Imel (2000) noted that the Workforce Investment Act included approximately 70 programs, which were created through the cooperation of all the states and local governments.

The bill provides a user-friendly, public-private approach to job placement. Because of a new, innovative payment system, [division] vocational rehabilitation agencies … [are] rewarded for helping people remain on the jobs (Glover, 1998, p. 1).

Although the Workforce Investment Act provided extensive training, it did not help handicapped individuals obtain jobs (Imel, 2000).

Then, President Clinton signed the Work Incentives Improvement Act of 1999 with the hope that 10 million disabled applicants could gain employment (Moakley, 2000; Sair, 2001). This law altered the Social Security Act to ensure that employed, disabled people will not loose their health coverage (Finney, 2001). More specifically,

It extends the amount of time that people receiving Social Security Disability Insurance will retain their premium-free Part-A Medicare coverage from the current three and a half years to eight. This will enable them to buy into Part-A Medicare monthly premium after 30 quarters of Social Security benefits (Moakley, 2000, p. 110-111).

Nevertheless, Sair (2001) discovered that the Work Incentives Improvement Act did not assist disabled applicants in becoming independent taxpayers.

Chapter 2 was a review of the literature. The ADA's five Titles explained that employers should not discriminate against disabled employees. In one study, only a small number of younger employers interviewed and hired disabled applicants. Some disabled individuals were motivated to gain employment while others gave up job searching. Developmental Disabilities and Mental Retardation Agencies failed to assist disabled applicants in obtaining jobs or self-employment. Even though the Workforce Investment Act provided job training and the Work Incentives Improvement Act made it possible to work and receive Social Security Income, disabled people were still unemployed. Chapter 3 outlines the method and two surveys that were delivered to both the disabled and employers.

Question #1 What discrepancy will be reflected between the hiring attitudes of older employers as compared to the younger?

Question #2 In examining depression of both disabled male and female respondents, which will indicate the greater incidence of depression?

Question #3 Who will have the more difficult experience in gaining meaningful employment?

Physically disabled adults represented the target population. Their disabilities were spinal cord injury, polio, cerebral palsy, traumatic brain injury, fiberous dysplasia, multiple sclerosis, idiopathic peripheral neuropathy, survivor of brain tumor / deaf / blind, arthrogryposis multiple cogenia, cardiorespiratory failure / osteoporosis & ostrochondrama, asperger syndrome, back failure, quadriplegic, blind, fibromyalsia / other, spinal bifida, amputee, fibromyalsia, gullen barre syndrome, spinal muscular atrophy, muscular dystrophy, hypoxic encephlophy, paraplegic, spinal cord compression, deaf, and other disabilities. Out of 210 participants, 72 respondents living worldwide were randomly selected from the following on-line disabled discussion and newsgroups:

1. Five participants were randomly selected from coldac@listserv.kent.edu.
2. Ten participants were randomly selected from MnsAdapt@aol.com.
3. Three participants were randomly selected from living@qiclab.scn.rain.com.
4. Ten participants were randomly selected from polio@maelstrom.stjohns.edu.
5. Ten subjects were randomly selected from c-palsy@maelstrom.stjohns.edu.
6. Four subjects were randomly selected from disabled@maelstrom.stjohns.edu.
7. Two subjects were randomly selected from able-job@maelstrom.stjohns.edu.
8. One participant was randomly selected from berkeley-disabled@onelist.com.
9. Two participants were randomly selected from adapt-ca@egroups.com.
10. Five participants were randomly selected from ltcare-l@list.nih.gov.
11. One participant was randomly selected from hasse@jvlnet.com.
12. One participant was randomly selected from alt.education.disabled.
13. Four participants were randomly selected from alt.med.phys-assts.
14. Two participants were randomly selected from alt.support.
15. One participant was randomly selected from alt.support.cerebral-palsy.
16. One participant was randomly selected from alt.support.dystonia.
17. Two participants were randomly selected from alt.support.mult-sclerosis.
18. One participant was randomly selected from alt.support.musc-dystrophy.
19. Five participants were randomly selected from alt.support.post-polio.
20. Two participants were randomly selected from alt.support.spina-bifida.

All 72 disabled respondents were administered a 20-minute on-line survey. This survey consisted of demographic questions regarding gender, age, disability, education, living location, and employment (see Appendix C). The investigator designed the demographic questionnaire. Second, the Subjective Probability Questionnaire (see Appendix G) measured disabled participants' depression.

Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, Rohde, and Redner (1993) administered the Subjective Probability Questionnaire to 1,710 adolescents, which was originally based on Beck's cognitive three-piece model. This was performed by having Beck's participants mark how likely positive outcomes would occur. Respondents rated this probability on every event through a 5-point Likert scale. The Likert scale consisted of statements such as "I will be able to meet friends with the kind of people I really like." The Subjective Probability Questionnaire accessed how individuals view future events (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Rohde, 1995).

Although this questionnaire was not widely known, it was still valid and reliable due to ”The obtained coefficient alpha of this scale was .83, and the one-year test-retest reliability was .40” (p. 95). A higher reliability would have been preferred. The Subjective Probability Questionnaire was utilized because the investigator administered the Beck Depression Inventory to same disabled population when conducting a similar study four years ago. In order to avoid respondents from remembering the previous survey and from not participating in this current study, the Subjective Probability Questionnaire was the best and the most appropriate test that the researcher could find.

Third, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (See Appendix E) measured participants’ self esteem. Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, Rohde, and Redner (1993) gave the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale to the same 1,710 adolescents. The Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale included five positive and five negative statements (Marsh, 1996). Participants either agreed or disagreed on a four point Likert-Scale. Andrews and Brown (1993) confirmed that this assessment was significantly valid and reliable due to indicating low and high self-esteem as well as depression. For example, the internal consistency reliability coefficient (Cronbach's alpha) was .80.

All 19 employers took a 15-minute on-line survey. This survey included demographic questions regarding participants' age, gender, and employment status (see Appendix H). The investigator designed the demographic questionnaire. This survey also determined the employers' preference regarding hiring through the Disability Rights Attitude Scale (see Appendix J). Hernandez, Keys, Balcazar, and Drum (1998) stated that the Disability Rights Attitude Scale was accurate in determining attitudes, regarding disability rights, that might prevent or encourage the usage of the ADA.

The Disability Rights Attitude Scale (DRAS) demonstrated acceptable reliability and validity with 2 samples of university students. Reliability analysis resulted in Cronbach’s alphas of .91 (Sample 1) and .90 (Sample 2). … Construct validity analysis resulted in predicted, significant positive correlations with other relevant measures (Hernandez, Keys, Balcazar, & Drum, 1998, p. 203).

Chapter 3 described the methodology that was needed for this work. Seventy-two disabled participants completed a 20-minute survey on electronic mail. This survey involved six demographic items, 10 questions taken from the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and five items taken from the Subjective Probability Questionnaire. In conjunction, 19 employers took a 15-minute survey over electronic mail. The survey consisted of three demographic questions, and 26 items taken from the Disability Rights Attitude Scale.

Chapter 4 presents results of the study with discussion. Numbers illustrate the percentage of disabled participants' demographic, and depression items. Numbers also reflect the percentage of employers' demographic, hiring preference, and work accommodation factors.

Question #1 What discrepancy will be reflected between the hiring attitudes of older employers as compared to the younger?

Question #2 In examining depression of both disabled male and female respondents, which will indicate the greater incidence of depression?

Question #3 Who will have the more difficult experience in gaining meaningful employment?

Question #4 In reflecting the amount of effort regarding provisions of special accommodations, who will be given the greater concern; those who are disabled or those who are not?

All of these research questions are answered by the following results:

Disabled male respondents (34, 47.2%) and females (38, 52.8%) made up total of 72 who responded to this investigator. All were included in the study. Ages of these participants ranged from a low of 17 years to 69. Of the 72 respondents, 59 (81.9%) lived in North America, with the remaining 13 (18.1%) living in the Philippines, the Netherlands, England, Australia, Canada, and India. The largest number of participants (49 or 68.1%) indicated being disabled with spinal cord injury, fiberous dysplasia, idiopathic peripheral neuropathy, survivor of brain tumor / deaf / blind, arthrogryposis multiple cogenia, cardiorespiratory failure / osteoporosis & ostrochondrama, asperger syndrome, back failure, quadriplegic, blind, fibromyalsia / other, spinal bifida, amputee, fibromyalsia, gullen barre syndrome, spinal muscular atrophy, paraplegic, spinal cord compression, and deaf. the next largest group indicated cerebral palsy (10 or 13.9%) as their disability.

Educationally, 32 or 44.4% of the respondents have earned graduate degrees. Regarding employment, 41 (56.9%) indicated no employment. Co-existing, the number stipulating that they experience depression were 7 males and 9 females.

Out of two hundred and 10 disabled participants, a total of seventy-two respondents, living worldwide, were randomly selected from 20 on-line disabled discussion and newsgroups. They completed a 20-minute survey on electronic mail. This survey involved six demographic items, 10 questions taken from the Roenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and five items taken from the Subjective Probability Questionnaire. Out of fifty employers, a total of 19 employers were selected from a northeastern university's job fair. They all lived in New Jersey and had encounters with the disabled population. They were electronically contacted at their E-mail addresses. The employers were administered a 15-minute survey over electronic mail. This survey consisted of three demographic questions, and 26 items taken from the Disability Rights Attitude Scale.

What discrepancy will be reflected between the hiring attitudes of older employers as compared to the younger? According to the literature review, younger employers hired disabled applicants (Backenroth, 1996). However, results indicated that age may not truly be a factor in their perceptions of the disabled due to the low total number of respondents (N = 19). Therefore, younger and older employers did not have a preference in hiring non-disabled applicants over disabled applicants. The literature review and the results did not support each other because of the low total of participants (N = 19).

In examining depression of both disabled male and female respondents, which will indicate the greater incidence of depression? Based on the literature review, it was probable that disabled respondents experienced depression and low self-esteem from feeling inadequate (O'Keefe, 1993). However, results showed that out of 34 men, only seven males experienced depression. Out of 3 women, only 9 females experienced depression. Therefore, disabled males and females were not depressed. The literature review and the results did not support each other. Ninety-eight percent of participants were not adolescents. This showed that the Subjective Probability Questionnaire was not intended to measure adult depression.

Who will have the more difficult experience in gaining meaningful employment? According to the literature review, Rohe and Krause (1999) found that more disabled men had careers than disabled women. However, results reflected the following: Out of 72 participants, 41 respondents indicated no employment. Therefore, most disabled males and females were not employed. The literature review and the results did not support each other. Since disabled people financially depended on Social Security Income, they could not gain employment due to losing their Social Security Income's benefits.

Most of the 72 disabled participants lived in the United States, were unemployed, had an assortment of disabilities, and earned graduate degrees. However, the results failed to show that subjects were depressed. The employers were computer consultants, biologists, and college professors. Nevertheless, results did not indicate that they had preferences in hiring and accommodating disabled applicants.

The ADA's five titles explained that employers should not discriminate against disabled employees. Only a small number of younger employers interviewed and hired disabled applicants. Some disabled individuals were motivated to gain employment while others gave up job searching. Developmental disabilities and mental retardation agencies failed to assist disabled applicants in obtaining jobs or self-employment. Even though the Workforce Investment Act provided job training and the Work Incentives Improvement Act made it possible to work and receive Social Security Income, disabled people were still unemployed.

Seventy-two disabled participants completed a 20-minute survey on electronic mail. This survey involved six demographic items, 10 questions taken from the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, and five items taken from the Subjective Probability Questionnaire. In conjunction, 19 participants took a 15-minute survey over electronic mail. The survey consisted of three demographic questions, and 26 items taken from the Disability Rights Attitude Scale.

The results, from this study, did not show any significant problems among non-disabled employers and disabled workers. However, the literature stated that there an assortment of obstacles preventing non-disabled employers and disabled employees from working together. There was a discrepancy between the literature review and results.

What discrepancy will be reflected between the hiring attitudes of older employers as compared to the younger? According to the literature review, younger employers hired disabled applicants (Backenroth, 1996). However, results indicated that age may not truly be a factor in their perceptions of the disabled due to the low total number of respondents (N = 19). Therefore, younger and older employers did not have a preference in hiring non-disabled applicants over disabled applicants. The literature review and the results did not support each other because of the low total of participants (N = 19).

In examining depression of both disabled male and female respondents, which will indicate the greater incidence of depression? Based on the literature review, it was probable that disabled respondents experienced depression and low self-esteem from feeling inadequate (O'Keefe, 1993). However, results showed that out of 34 men, only 7 males experienced depression. Out of 38 women, only 9 females experienced depression. Therefore, most disabled males and females were not depressed. The literature review and the results did not support each other. Ninety-eight percent of participants were not adolescents. This showed that the Subjective Probability Questionnaire was not intended to measure adult depression.

Who will have the more difficult experience in gaining meaningful employment? According to the literature review, Rohe and Krause (1999) found that more disabled men had careers than disabled women. However, results reflected the following: Out of 72 participants, 41 respondents indicated no employment. Therefore, most disabled males and females were not employed. The literature review and the results did not support each other. Since disabled people financially depended on Social Security Income, they could not gain employment due to losing their Social Security Income's benefits.

In reflecting the amount of effort regarding provisions of special accommodations, who will be given the greater concern: those who are disabled or those who are not? According to the literature review, employers were willing to make accommodations for and disabled applicants (Backenroth, 1996; Colella, DeNisi, & Varma, 1998; Jackson, 2000). However, results indicated that one out of nineteen employers accommodated disabled employees. Therefore, employers did not express a preference in accommodating work sites for either disabled employees. The literature review and results did not support each other. Employers were asked to agree or disagree to the following statement taken from the Disability Rights Attitude Scale. State and local worksites should be physically accessible to people with disabilities. This item only focused on the disabled population instead of the disabled and employer populations.

In Sample 1, the data were skewed because the sample (n = 72) was small. Second, the disabled participants lived in the United States and were graduate students. Third, they were not depressed. The investigator utilized the wrong testing instrument for accessing depression in adults. The Subjective Probability Questionnaire was for measuring adolescents' depression and its one-year test-retest reliability was .40 (Gotlib, Lewinsohn, Seeley, & Rohde, 1995).

In sample two, the data was also skewed because the investigator only selected a very small sample (N = 19) from New Jersey. Second, the non-disabled employers were only college professors, computer consultants, and biologists.

If the investigator conducted similar studies in the future, she would have taken the following steps: She would have obtained a larger sample from the disabled population. When surveying, she would have asked the disabled population additional demographic questions regarding transportation and types (office or blue-collar) of jobs. Knowing these two types of jobs would have been critical in determining the required educational level. In addition, she would have chosen the Beck Depression Inventory to measure depression in adults.

The BDI is a 21-item self-report measure of depression severity. Each item is rated on a 4-point scale (0-3), yielding summary scores that range from 0-63. This instrument has demonstrated adequate reliability both in terms of internal consistency and stability. Beck reported coefficient alphas for psychiatric patients, ranging from .76 to .95. A similar range (.73--.92) was reported for nonpsychiatric populations. Test-retest reliability has been adequate but more variable. This instrument has also determined strong convergent and discriminant validity, and adequate factorial validity (Dozois, Dobson, & Ahnberg, 1998, p. 86).

Finally, the investigator would have also obtained a larger non-disabled sample from geographical areas other than New Jersey.

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Whitney-Thomas, J., & Timmons, J. C. (1999). Expanding access: Changes in vocational rehabilitation practice since the 1992 rehabilitation act amendments. Rehabilitation Counseling Bulletin, 43(1), 130-148.

Winzer, M. A. (1993). Approaching Integration. In The History of Special Education from Isolation to Integration, (pp. 366-381). Washington DC: Callaudet University Press.

Winzer, M. A. (1993). Disability and Society before the Eighteenth Century: Dread and Despair. In The History of Special Education from Isolation to Integration, (pp. 6-10). Washington DC: Callaudet University Press.

Winzer, M. A. (1993). The Rise of Institutions, Asylums, and Public Charities. In The History of Special Education from Isolation to Integration, (p. 82). Washington DC: Callaudet University Press.

Witkowski, T. (1997). Performance levels in situations of helplessness threat and group affiliation egotistic mechanisms in helplessness deficits. Journal of Social Psychology, 137, 229-234.

Yell, M. L., & Rogers, D. (1998). The legal history of special education. Remedial & Special Education, 19(4), 219-234.

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Minaudo (1991) was born with a mild case of Cerebral Palsy during the 1950's; she lived with her parents and three older brothers. Minaudo's parents did not know that their daughter had Cerebral Palsy until seven months after she was born (Minaudo, 1991). She received a lot of love and emotional support from all of her family members. For example, Peter, a brother, taught her how to drink with a straw by saying, "Loreena, kiss the straw; go on, kiss it" (Minaudo, 1991, p. 29). Encouraging her to kiss instead of suck the straw successfully worked. Since she was very shy, her speech therapist had difficulties teaching her to speak. Moreover, her mother became motivated to inspire her talk by saying, "Go on and cry. ... But you aren't going to get any water until you say it! Say ... 'Wat-er or Waawa'" (Minaudo, 1991, p. 33)!

Since the Mainstreaming Act did not exist during the 1950s, Minaudo (1991) was not able to attend her local public school. Furthermore, she received physical, occupational, and speech therapy by attending three private schools (Detroit Orthopedic Clinic, Chippendale School, and Marjorie F. Carlson School) that were specifically designed to educate physically disabled children.

Attending the Detroit Orthopedic Clinic and Chippendale School helped her to physically improve. Learning how to walk, speak, feed and dress herself, and type on an electric typewriter were essential living skills that enabled her to function independently. Before Minaudo (1991) benefited from therapy, she had to depend on her parents to care of her physical needs.

... I was pretty much like a complete vegetable. I had a bright mind in a useless body. My body was so impaired that I could not yet crawl, feed myself, nor do any other functions that any normal" healthy three-and-a-half year old child would do. In other words, I was still being taken care of just like an infant (Minaudo, 1991, p. 24-25).

Also, the Detroit Orthopedic Clinic and Chippendale School taught Minaudo to never give up. Her teachers demonstrated that even though it may take one longer to leap over tremendous obstacles to accomplish goals, it is worth the effort. Also, one can never fail unless he or she suddenly give up (Minaudo, 1991). For instance, she mastered to crawl at the clinic, which was an extremely difficult goal to accomplish. Her physical therapist inspired her to keep attempting to crawl by exercising her body daily (Minaudo, 1991). Slowly, Minaudo (1991) learned how to crawl; however, she could not walk until she went to Chippendale School. She felt very fortunate that these facilities were able to provide the appropriate treatment.

The next time I attended the occupational room, Mrs. Lefkofsky [therapist] placed in front of me a sticky placemat where she set a plate and spoon upon it. The purpose of the sticky placemat was to keep the plate from moving. I watched closely as she opened a can of pudding and placed a few spoonfuls out onto the plate. She then put a bib on me, put the spoon in my right hand, and she patiently and repeatedly guided my hand with hers down to the plate and up to my mouth. After ten minutes, she released her hand from mine so that I could try independently, and tried I did. Flying pudding droppings went everywhere, on the floor, in my hair, nose, etc. Everywhere but my mouth! But, even as young as I was, I did not become discouraged, for I had so much determination in me, and I tried again and again. Yet, that occupational therapy and my attempts to feed myself were unsuccessful. For days and weeks, repeats of it continued! Then, one day, it happened! I fed a spoonful of pudding into my mouth and smiled (Minaudo, 1991, p. 27-28).

Although Minaudo physically and mentally improved by attending Chippendale School, she strongly felt that she was not being intellectually stimulated anymore; therefore, Minaudo wanted to enroll in another school to further her education (Minaudo, 1991). The Marjorie F. Carlson School did not provide an academic, challenging educational and intensive therapy programs. Listening to the radio and playing board games were mindless activities, which substituted for learning academic subjects such as world history (Minaudo, 1991). Minaudo tried to stay busy by developing her own educational program; nevertheless, it was difficult to learn without receiving instruction, responses, and positive reinforcement from the staff members (Minaudo, 1991).

Sincerely trying to help me adjust to my new surroundings, Mr. C (teacher) ... was overzealous in his promises to me. I felt overjoyed when he told me that he planned to confer with me, review with me, and discuss with me each chapter I would be studying ... It wasn't until I had received my books and workbooks, that I found that Mr. C did not give me any direction, correction, nor guidance with them. He accepted all of my typewritten papers and completed worksheets, but never returned them with corrections or comment (Minaudo, 1991, p. 75).

Where were all of Minaudo's classroom and homework assignments?

... I happened to pass Mr. C's desk and I noticed that the drawer was wide open. ... These lessons which I, and some of my classmates, had labored for hours on end to accomplish. They were all unchecked, scattered in the drawer (Minaudo, 1991, p. 76-77).

Minaudo was outraged and completely dumbfounded to discover that all of her efforts to receive an education was just a waste of time. The worst part was that she never earned the proper grades (Minaudo, 1991). In other words, Mr. C asked her what grades she wanted to receive instead of trying to grade her work (Minaudo, 1991).

After graduating Marjorie F. Carlson, Minaudo (1991) could not seek vocational rehabilitation programs appropriate for her needs. Moreover, she decided to attend Macomb Community College and received her Associates Degree because she had a strong desire to become a journalist (Minaudo, 1991). It was difficult enrolling in college for she did not have confidence about competing with non-disabled students.

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After Callahan was born perfectly healthy on February 5, 1951, he was adopted by a Catholic family and attended a strict Catholic School located in Portland, Oregon (Callahan, 1989). He did not become physically disabled until he was a young adult. Although Callahan (1989) was a very talented A student until public high school, he was not motivated at all to earn a college degree and obtain a career. Being an alcoholic, smoking cigarettes, consuming drugs, and having parties with friends entertained him (Callahan, 1989).

Becoming drunk at topless bars was Callahan’s (1989) favorite activity; however, this came to an end. He and a friend, who had been drinking quite heavily, accidentally smashed their Volkswagon into a Con Edison pole (Callahan, 1989). "The Volkswagon had folded up like an accordion, causing minor injuries to Dextor [friend] but neatly severing my spine" (Callahan, 1989, p. 54). After Callahan (1989) was rushed to the hospital and told he was permanently paralyzed from the waist down, he fell into a deep depression.

Callahan (1989) immediately received medical attention and counseling. Although living in the Intensive Care Unit for approximately six weeks was quite depressing, the staff treated him like a human being instead of a worthless object (Callahan, 1989). For example, Callahan (1989) convinced the night-duty nurse to help him to smoke cigarettes and a volunteer to rub his back on several occasions. After spending five weeks in Intensive Care Unit, his doctor performed an operation to strengthen and stabilize his spine to prevent further damage (Callahan, 1989).

Then, Callahan (1989) was transferred to another ward and placed in an intensive physical \ occupational therapy program. Learning to sit in an upright position, transfer into a manual wheelchair, feed, and partly dress himself were very challenging short-term goals to achieve (Callahan, 1989). Callahan felt that it was vital to become physically independent as much as possible because he did not want to be a burden on other people. After two months being hospitalized, he shortly discovered

I am a C5-6 quadriplegic, which means that my spinal cord is severed between the fifth and sixth vertebrae counting down from the top. ... I can nly work my triceps, half of my deltoids, half of my diaphragm. ... Everything from my diaphragm down is without sensation and, naturally, beyond voluntary control (Callahan, 1989, p. 72).

After Callahan (1989) mastered his short-term goals and the therapy program terminated, he began receiving Medical Care and Social Security Disability Insurance. Also, the hospital staff members trained a live-in attendant so that he could physically function in an apartment. Since Callahan’s (1989) attendant was a sixty-six year old alcoholic, he had great difficulties providing the appropriate custodial care that Callahan desperately needed to survive. Positioning Callahan (1989) on a lift to transfer him out of bed, removing urine from his catheter, sponge bathing him, and making sure that he defecates on a daily basis were difficult tasks for the attendant to perform. In addition, the attendant had to food shop, cook meals, clean the apartment, and do the laundry. As a result, he fired the attendant (Callahan, 1989).

Since Callahan (1989) refused to live with his parents, he decided to move to a nursing home specifically designed for young adults who were either paraplegic or quadriplegic. This nursing home was run by strictly Catholic nuns. Even though the nuns attempted to help Callahan with his drinking problem, he never adjusted to the home. Furthermore, the nuns expelled him for not conforming to the rules (Callahan, 1989). Transferring to another nursing home, that was tailored for the elderly, made the Catholic nursing home wonderful (Callahan, 1989). The staff neglected to provide decent adequate care; moreover, he did not receive his sponge baths, was not able to shave his face, and could not defecate properly (Callahan, 1989). Deciding to attend community college to escape the nursing home did not improve anything for he was not interested furthering his education. Drinking also made Callahan's situation worst for he could not to inform the director of the nursing home that he was not receiving adequate care (1989).

Callahan met an attendant whom was recently employed as the nursing home and was a very devoted staff member (1989). Shortly, Callahan (1989) privately hired the attendant to be his full-time aide and they lived in an accessible apartment. Callahan (1989) was thrilled to leave the nursing home and receive proper care. Unfortunately, he discovered that the attendant was bisexual and suffering from severe psychological problems (Callahan, 1989). Firing another attendant and hiring another replacement was a struggle because Callahan (1989) had to live on SSDI. Since he could not open a savings account, he had to keep a very tight budget and it was impossible to plan for the future (Callahan, 1989).

My SSDI entitlement was just over $600 a month. According to Welfare, that was too pricely a sum. They required me to hand over $200 a month as partial reimbursement for the $800 I was allotted for daily and weekend attendants. My rent, for a small one-bedroom, ground-floor apartment, consumed a further $325. The $75 that remained was real whoopee money. All I had to make cover were electricity, phone, groceries, clothing, drawing supplies, envelopes, postage, copying, haircuts, dental bills other than emergency ones, and food for my cat (Callahan, 1989, p. 175).

Living on this income was extremely difficult. Callahan (1989) could not to afford fresh food. For example, eating stale bread and outdated liverwurst straight from the can for numerous days made him physically sick (Callahan, 1989). Although the third new aide, was an alcoholic and a drug addict, he was dedicated in physically assisting (Callahan, 1989). After Callahan finally admitted he had a drinking problem, the attendant drove him to counseling. Interacting with a psychiatrist and attending Alcoholic Anonymous meetings helped Callahan (1989) to stay sober for nine years. It was a struggle for Callahan (1989) to overcome his addiction because he never understood why his biological mother put him up for adoption. He often projected his anger toward the attendant (Callahan, 1989).

Callahan (1989) was motivated to continue searching for new techniques to experience inner peace. For example, he started to study Budda and the Catholic religion in further detail to develop a relationship with God. After Callahan (1989) completely stopped drinking, he had a different attitude toward life. He could no longer relate to his attendant; therefore, Callahan (1989) hired a new attendant. This aide, who was a drug dealer, became a dedicated full-time care taker. Then, Callahan (1989) started to study hard to become a better student and majored in English at Portland State University. Falling in love with a college female college student made him a better person (Callahan, 1989). After three months of serious dating, he wanted to see other women, which destroyed his romantic involvement (Callahan, 1989). Maintaining a healthy relationship was difficult because Callahan was searching for his birth mother; moreover, he still had trouble accepting that he was adopted (1989).

Callahan (1989) decided to draw cartoons that were published in various magazines. Now, he could express his feelings by drawing without getting drunk or taking his frustrations out on other people (Callahan, 1989). As soon as Callahan (1989) began to earn a profit from his work, a case worker, who worked for Social Security, threatened to terminate his benefits. This case worker said that Callahan was employed and earning a reasonable salary Callahan (1989). As a result, he did not qualify to receive SSDI's benefits any longer (Callahan, 1989). Nevertheless, he was able to overcome this obstacle by joining an insurance plan that allowed people to earn and keep some of their income (Callahan, 1989). Furthermore, Callahan kept his job as a cartoonist.

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1. Are you male or female?

2. What is your disability?

3. What is your age?

4. Where do you live?

5. What is your educational status?

6. What is your employment status?

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Thank you for your interest in the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale, perhaps the most widely-used self-esteem measure in social science research. Dr. Rosenberg was professor of Sociology at the University of Maryland from 1975 until his death in 1992. He received his Ph.D. from Columbia University in 1953, and held a variety of positions, including at Cornell University and the National Institute Mental Health, prior to coming to Maryland. Dr. Rosenberg is the author or editor of numerous books and articles, and his work on the self-concept, particularly the dimension of self-esteem, is world-renowned.

Dr. Florence Rosenberg, Manny's wife, has given permission to use the Self-Esteem Scale for educational and professional research. There is no charge associated with the use of this scale in your professional research. However, please be sure to give credit to Dr. Rosenberg when you use the scale by citing his work in publications, papers and reports. We would also appreciate receiving copies of any published works resulting from your research at the University of Maryland address listed below.

Department of Sociology
University of Maryland
College Park, Maryland 20742-1313

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SHARE YOUR FEELINGS ABOUT YOURSELF. IF YOU STRONGLY AGREE WITH THE FOLLOWING STATEMENTS, TYPE SA. IF YOU AGREE, TYPE A. IF YOU DISAGREE, TYPE D. IF YOU STRONGLY DISAGREE TYPE SD.

1. On the whole, I am satisfied with myself. ANSWER:

2. At times, I think I am no good. ANSWER:

3. I feel that I have a number of good qualities. ANSWER:

4. I am able to do things as well as most other people. ANSWER:

5. I feel I do not have much to be proud of. ANSWER:

6. I certainly feel useless at times. ANSWER:

7. I feel that I'm a person of worth, at least on an equal plane with others. ANSWER:

8. I wish I could have more respect for myself. ANSWER:

9. All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure. ANSWER:

10. I take a positive attitude toward myself. ANSWER:

To score these items, assign a value to each item, e.g. zero for each low self-esteem answer and an one for each high self-esteem answer. The items are reversed in some cases. Then the individual has a score, e.g. ten indicates high self-esteem responses on all items zero indicates low self-esteem on all items.

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Subject: SPQ materials
Date: Mon, Oct 2000 12:34:09 -0700
From: Debbie Blanchard Debbie@ori.org
To: “ysinger@worldnet.att.net” ysinger@worldnet.att.net

Dear Ms. Singer. I would like to send you the SPQ materials that you requested from Dr. Lewinsohn. Please send me your complete mailing address.

Thank you.

Debbie Blanchard
Administrative Assistant to Peter M. Lewinsohn, Ph.D.
Oregon Research Institute
1715 Franklin Blvd.
Eugene, OR 9740-1983
voice: (541) 984-0460, ext. 2122
fax: (541) 484-1108

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READ EACH STATEMENT BELOW AND TYPE A LETTER, ACCORDING TO THE FOLLOWING OPTIONS, THE EXTENT TO WHICH YOU FEEL THE STATEMENTS ARE TRUE OR WILL BECOME TRUE.

A. not at all true or never will occur
B. not likely true or not likely to occur
C. 50-50 chance of being true or becoming true
D. probably true or will become true
E. absolutely true

1. Life is really full of worthwhile things. ANSWER:

2. I will have periods of great happiness. ANSWER:

3. I will make good choices during my life. ANSWER:

4. I'll be able to make friends with the kind of people I really like. ANSWER:

5. I am psychologically capable of being happy. ANSWER:

Scoring

0 = 0 not at all true or never will occur
1 = 10
2 = 20 not likely true or not likely to occur
3 = 30
4 = 40
5 = 50 50-50 chance of being true or becoming true
6 = 60
7 = 70 probably true or will become true
8 = 80
9 = 90
X = 100 absolutely true

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1. Are you male or female?

2. What is your age?

3. Where do you live?

4. What is your employment status?

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The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) was passed in 1990. It is a comprehensive law that protects the civil rights of individuals with disabilities. Consisting of five titles, the ADA covers areas of employment, government services, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications.

Many individuals are requires to comply with this law, including employers, government officials, business owners, and providers of goods and services to the public. Under the ADA, these individuals may have to: 1) remove architectural, communication, and transportation barriers; 2) modify rules, policies, and procedures; and 3) provide auxiliary services. Success of the ADA depends greatly on their actions and attitudes toward this law. Assessment of these attitudes may be vital to understanding the prevalence and potential success of ADA implementation activities.

To date, research regarding the ADA has been limited. This lack of research attention may be due, in part, to the recency of both the law that was passed in 1990 and its provisions that are being gradually phased in over time. In addition, there is a lack of psychometrically sound measures related to disability rights in general and those codified in the ADA in particular.

The DRAS provides a psychometrically sound means of assessing attitudes toward disability rights, particularly those rights embedded in the three major ADA titles: 1) employment, 2) state and local government services, and 3) public accommodations. This information may be used to gather baseline data from those most affected by this law to better understand their perceptions regarding disability rights and the ADA. Assessment of these attitudes may indicate the need for information dissemination and awareness training on disability rights.

Data collected with the DRAS may also be used to develop intervention programs and to evaluate the effectiveness of ADA educational campaigns and training. Lastly, assessing attitudes of the public and private sectors may further enhance our understanding of the prevalence and impact of ADA implementation activities.

You can place your order by mail, email, or phone.

Title
Price Qty

A Self-Help Guide to Community Needs Assessment $6.00 _____ and Action Planning (English or Spanish Version)
Increasing ADA Implementation in your Neighborhood: $6.00 _____
How to conduct Physical Accessibility Surveys & Provide Feedback to Business Owners and Managers (English Version Only) Guidelines for using the Short Accessibility Evaluation $4.00 _____ Form (English or Spanish version)
The Disability Rights Attitude Scale (DRAS) $4.00 _____ Administration and Scoring Manual (English or Spanish Version)
The Americans with Disabilities Act Knowledge Survey $4.00 _____ Administration and Scoring Manual (English or Spanish Version)

Name:________________________________________________________

Organization_________________________________________________________

Shipping Address:____________________________________________________

Date needed by:__________ (allow approximately two weeks to process order)

A shipping and handling charge of $2.00 will be added to your order.

Method of Payment:_________Check ________Bill me later
Please make check payable to: Advocacy and Empowerment for Minorities Program / FEIN 37-600-0511

Questions:cdrazen@uic.edu

page last updated August 17, 2000

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PLEASE, READ EACH STATEMENT AND TYPE THE NUMBER THAT BEST REPRESENTS YOUR HONEST OPINION ACCORDING TO THE SCALE THE BELOW. THERE ARE NO RIGHT OR WRONG ANSWERS.

1. Strongly Disagree
2. Disagree
3. Disagree Somewhat
4. Agree Somewhat
5. Agree
6. Strongly Agree

1. Curb cuts for persons using wheelchairs should be available on all street corners. ANSWER:

2. Court houses with more than one floor should install elevators for persons with disabilities, even if installing is costly. ANSWER:

3. Providing support for persons with disabilities cost more than it is worth. ANSWER:

4. Social security offices must be physically accessible to individuals with disabilities. ANSWER:

5. Benefits and privileges offered to employees without disabilities should also be offered to employees with disabilities. ANSWER:

6. State and local worksites should be physically accessible to people with disabilities. ANSWER:

7. If librarians are unable to use sign language, the employees of public libraries need to find another way to communicate to customers who are deaf (i.e. pen and notebook, computer, or some similar visual method. ANSWER:

8. An employee with a disability will be absent from work frequently. ANSWER:

9. Restaurants should not rearrange their tables in order to permit access to individuals who use wheelchairs. ANSWER:

10. An individual with a history of treatment for a psychiatric disorder should not be protected by federal laws (like the American Disability Act). ANSWER:

11. It is acceptable for an employer to deduct the cost of an alarm system with flashing lights from the salary of an employee who is deaf and needs it. ANSWER:

12. State employment forms should be available in Braille, large print, and alternative forms for persons with disabilities. ANSWER:

13. Department stores should not have to change their layout of shelves and racks in order to allow access to individuals who use wheelchairs. ANSWER:

14. City halls with more than one floor should be required to install elevators in order to make more accessible. ANSWER:

15. Individuals who use wheelchairs should not be encouraged to use public transportation. ANSWER:

16. Elevators should be available in all shopping centers, public transit stations, and airport terminals with two or more levels. ANSWER:

17. People with disabilities should get help from friends, family and social agencies, not from laws. ANSWER:

18. It is better for businesses to hire people without disabilities. ANSWER:

19. All car rental companies should have cars with hand controls available for licensed drivers who cannot use foot pedals. ANSWER:

20. Putting in ramps to state and government buildings is a waste of taxpayer money. ANSWER:

21. Individuals who use wheelchairs should not be encouraged to use public transportation. ANSWER:

22. If a menu in Braille is not available at a restaurant, the server needs to read the menu to customers who are blind. ANSWER:

23. A private employer should have the right to refuse to hire applicants with disabilities even though they may be the most qualified to do the work. ANSWER:

24. Sign interpreters should be available for persons with hearing impairments when they are purchasing new cars. ANSWER:

25. Telecommunication devices for individuals with severe hearing impairments (e.g., portable text telephones) should be available in all large businesses, government offices, and public libraries. ANSWER:

26. People with disabilities deserve federal legislation like the American Disability Act to guarantee their fair treatment by employers. ANSWER:

Scoring