Assistive technology refers to alternative or adaptive specialized hardware and software, including input devices designed for users with manual disabilities, voice synthesizers, and voice recognition programs (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999). This technology makes it possible for students with learning and physical disabilities to actively participate in inclusive classroom tasks such as writing, reading, mathematics, and the like (Lankutis, & Kennedy, 2002).
Assistive technology allows these pupils to independently complete assignments and examinations. Marbler, Hadadian, and Ulman (1999) noted that public schools were forced, under the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), to make available to all disabled pupils the assistive technology equipment and services they need. In addition, Section 504 of the 1973 Rehabilitation Act, the 1990 Americans With Disabilities Act (ADA), and the 1998 Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act required schools to provide all disabled children equal and free access to appropriate assistive technology (Lankutis, & Kennedy, 2002). As a result, child study teams were obliged to include the issue of assistive technology in students’ Individualized Educational Plans (IEPs) (Lankutis, & Kennedy, 2002; Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999; Zascavage, & Keefe, 2004).
Wilkes (2001) reported that some school districts were successfully using assistive technology with disabled students attending all grade levels from kindergarten through twelfth grade.
Lankutis and Kennedy (2002) presented a case study describing a student with Cerebral Palsy who benefited from using a word prediction program called Co-Writer, along with a mathematics software application and a portable keyboard. These digital tools helped the student learn math and made it easier for the student to complete assignments and tests. Students with disabilities who are assisted by hardware and software designed to help them do what non-disabled children do now participate in group activities, instead of sitting alone in the back of the classroom.
If teachers had not made these assistive technology tools available, students with disabilities of various kinds would not have excelled in academic subjects and would have been socially isolated from their classmates.
Other students who could not use their hands to access a standardized keyboard and mouse, were given the option of utilizing voice recognition tools to work with the computer (Wilkes, 2001). For example, with ViaVoice installed, disabled students are able to control the computer with voice commands. Students can also operate the computer through touch control devices, alternative keyboards and mice, and speech-to-text word recognition tools.
Word prediction programs, word processors, grammar checkers, scanners, compact disc recording (CD-R and CD-RW) drives, MIDI-compatible musical instruments, and spell checkers are other kinds of assistive technologies discussed (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999). Elkind (2004) recommended that, before purchasing and utilizing assistive technology products, educators K-12 should evaluate them based on the criteria of flexibility, usable, and supportable. Educators should also evaluate these items by downloading various demos and/or requesting free CDs via the Internet from the companies that market the assistive technologies (Anderson, 2004).
During the last three decades, there has been a significant increase in the number of disabled high school students attending colleges (Roach, 2002). As this segment of the population has grown, the demand for utilizing assistive technology has increased. White, Wepner, and Wetzel (2003) noted that assistive technology had a significant positive effect on 8.5 million college students with learning and physically disabilities.
Roach (2002) and White, Wepner, and Wetzel (2003) stated that the Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1998 forced schools to include assistive technology in their curriculums. This meant that trained staff members had to work with disabled students, and school campuses had to be physically accessible (Roach, 2002).
However, many postsecondary institutions have failed to make their computer technology accessible to pupils with disabilities. Some disabled students have had to depend on other resources, such as disability organizations, to receive assistive technology and support services. Yet colleges claim that they accommodate every student with assistive devices such as portable and desktop computers, web-oriented applications and information, operating systems and software applications, multimedia products, and information appliances.
Although the laws demand that schools modify technology so that disabled students can use it, Roach found no such improvements. For example, universities had a low supply of software programs, did not have standardized policies in place for providing students with assistive technology, failed to integrate assistive technology in the classroom, did not contact vocational rehabilitation for funding purposes, and did not train faculty members in how to use assistive technology (White, Wepner, & Wetzel, 2003). This situation also is a sad reality in many elementary and secondary public schools.
What, then, are some of the more readily available, tried-and-true accessibility tools available today? We will look first at accessibility options that are designed into the operating systems most commonly used with desktop computers. These are the "meat and potatoes" of computer-based accessibility options because they come bundled in with every computer we buy.
Then there are accessibility options that are designed as special needs hardware devices and software applications. We will profile a few of these, which are but the tip of the iceberg compared to what will be available in the future to assist those with special needs.
Some History
The commitment by leading computer corporations such as IBM and Microsoft to the development of computing hardware and software that is accessible to those with disabilities is impressive.
1984 was significant for IBM-compatible computer manufacturers, just as it was for Apple Computer Corporation. It is the year when IBM introduced its first screen reader for the sight impaired. Indeed, "the Screen Reader was once a proprietary product of IBM" (Cooke, 2004). 1984 was significant for Apple Computer, too, since it is the year when Apple introduced its first computer, the Lisa, with a graphical user interface (GUI), echoing technology that had already been developed 20 years before by Douglas Englebart and refined in the mid-1970s at Xerox Corporation.
The modern digital computer, invented in 1939 by John Vincent Atanasoff, is a programmable machine. More to the point, the sky’s the limit as to what it can be programmed to do. It was originally conceived as a Universal Machine or Turing Machine, after the man, Alan Turing, who, in 1936, wrote a defining paper which proved that the modern digital computer had enormous problem-solving potential (Hodges, 1992).
Microsoft Corporation has had a commitment to accessibility since at least 1988. For more about this commitment see http://www.microsoft.com/enable/microsoft/history.aspx. The fact is that various versions of Microsoft’s Windows OS have included accessibility options such as StickyKeys, FilterKeys, and MouseKeys (which we will discuss further in this paper) as well as, for the hearing-impaired, visual feedback of computer sounds (Microsoft, 2004).
IBM’s Home Page Reader-a talking web browser introduced in 1998 for the visually-impaired and the elderly-magnifies text and reads out loud the contents of a web page. More about IBM’s commitment to accessibility can be found at http://www-306.ibm.com/able/.
Both developments-screen readers and the GUI-transformed computing for everyone. Even those not sight-impaired flocked to the cute computers which were able to speak the text that appeared on the screen and which were easier to use than anything that had gone before. These are just a few examples of the work that has been done to provide access for those who are disabled to the digital technologies that are more and more woven into the very fabric of our lives.
This begs a question: Is technology designed to make computers accessible to those who are disabled good for the rest of us? The answer is Yes! Universal Designers look at our world from the perspective of people with disabilities. They consider how to enable, and simplify, access to anywhere a disabled person wants to go, along with access to anything a disabled person wants to do. Door handles should be levers rather than knobs; sinks should be open underneath to allow for knee room; ramps and elevators should be alternatives to steps; curbs should have curb cuts; and so forth.
The outcome of the application of Universal Design is a world that is easier to live in for everyone, whether disabled or not. A door with a lever for a handle can be opened with an elbow when hands are full; mothers with strollers can use curb cuts to make a smooth transition from sidewalk to street; a ramp is a good deal easier to negotiate than steps when one is moving a heavy object into the house, and so on. Readers who would like to learn more about Universal Design may visit the Center for Universal Design at the North Carolina State University College of Design http://www.design.ncsu.edu/cud/.
In this paper, however, we are focusing on accessibility to computers for people with disabilities. Increasingly, to function effectively and efficiently in our world, we need to be able to access and use digital media-to participate in government, to participate in business and industry, to take advantage of educational opportunities, to buy and sell goods and services, to communicate-to be in touch. We must do everything within our power to ensure that people with disabilities have equal access to the technologies that are increasingly essential for full involvement in society.
OS-based Accessibility Options
a. The Sticky Keys accessibility option
When a physically-disabled student has limited ability to use the regular computer keyboard and is able to press only one key at a time, teachers should make the StickyKeys option available. Here are the steps required to use the Sticky Keys:
It is worthwhile to show all students, no matter what the age group, how these various accessibility options work so that everyone can become aware of the needs of those who are in some ways less able than themselves. Moreover, if everyone in the class knows how to use these accessibility options, there is more likelihood that the students will share this knowledge with their friends and relatives at home.
The StickyKeys accessibility option is essential for those students who are able to touch or hold down only one key on the keyboard at a time. For example, StickyKeys enables a student to type a capital letter by first pressing the Shift key and subsequently (rather than simultaneously) an alphabetical key. The same works for any double key sequence, such as Control or Alt key sequences.
b. The MouseKeys Accessibility Option
Here are the steps required to use the MouseKeys accessibility option:
While you’re there, check out the MouseKeys settings, too, by clicking on the Settings button. As illustrated, the dialog box allows the user to set the speed at which the pointer moves across the screen, which is a critical issue for those with hand-eye coordination limitations.
Fast is not a desirable option for those who are either too slow to react or too quick to respond. The ability to tweak the pointer speed is critical for such folks.
c. Mouse Pointers
Students who are sight impaired can be assisted by increasing the size of the mouse pointer. They can do this by following these directions.
This will bring up the dialog box.
This option of magnifying the size of the mouse pointer is useful for more than just those who have significant sight impairment.
Many of us often have difficulty locating the mouse pointer on the screen, either because the pointer gets lost against a particular background, or just does not stand out because it is too small. Increasing the size of the mouse pointer solves these problems right away.
Application-based Accessibility Options
a. Word Prediction Software
For example, if a student types the letter "d", the program will generate a list of words that begin with "d" (dog, dress, etc.) from which the student can select the target word. Typing a second letter (e.g., "du") generates another list of words beginning with "du" (Marbler, Hadadian, & Ulman, 1999).
b. Screen Readers
c. IntelliKeys
IntelliKeys is an alternative keyboard for students who lack physical coordination and fine motor skills. Seven overlays are included.
d. DynaVox
Moving Forward: Some Recommendations
Zascavage and Keefe (2004) suggest that school districts should hire qualified teachers who are knowledgeable about assistive technology and have experience working with disabled students. Also, school faculty, physical/occupational/speech therapists, psychologists, and computer technologists need to work together with students and their families. This approach provides a host of appropriate student services.
Schools should incorporate a collaborative and co-operative approach into their curriculums (Besio, & Salminen, 2004). This teaching method enables disabled pupils to directly work with assistive technology products in the classroom environment. In conjunction, teachers need to modify their lesson plans to accommodate the pupils’ learning abilities.
Campbell (2004) stated that all schools should follow a universal design model. This model would grant equal access to all disabled students to utilize assistive technology. According to the Americans with Disabilities Act, disabled pupils are entitled to use cost-effective and efficient assistive technology items. The universal design model would also ensure that all computer laboratories would be wheelchair accessible.
As part of the Mainstreaming Act, all school districts must include accessible technology items in their yearly budgets. Local, state, and federal governments must budget more monies for this than is at present the case. According to the literature, many disabled children do not receive public education and do not have opportunities to use assistive technology due to budget cuts in government programs.
Disability organizations, such as United Cerebral Palsy and Vocational Rehabilitation, must work along with the Child Study Teams to evaluate disabled students’ academic and assistive technology needs.
After determining the students’ needs, their Individual Educational Plans (IEPs) should specifically state what accessible technology products are needed to promote academic independence and success. In addition, IEPs must include step-by-step instructions regarding how to set up accessible technology items and appoint teachers to be responsible for these products.
During pre-term in-service days, a representative from a disability organization should give a hands-on demonstration to teachers concerning how to handle assistive technology items. The teachers should then be required to pass on this knowledge to all the students in their classes, not only those students who are disabled.
Conclusion
Studies show that assistive technology significantly helps disabled students to excel in inclusive classrooms. Assistive technologies comprise numerous products, some of which are described above and include a wide variety of software applications, input devices, and hardware that allow disabled students to perform difficult tasks by themselves.
Although the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the Americans with Disability Act, and other laws state that all secondary and post-secondary institutions must accommodate students who have assistive technology needs, the actual number of caring institutions who go beyond more than merely fulfilling the letter of the law is still sadly small. Computer-based assistive technologies are crucial components of the US commitment to guarantee its citizens, especially those who are disabled, an equal opportunity to the benefits that citizenship can bring. Individual teachers/professors may do what they can, but ultimately it is the institution-the school district, the college, or the university-that must "buy in" to the concept that ALL students, no matter what the individual need, must be accommodated in support of their willingness to learn.
References
Anderson, G. H. (2004, October). Freeware, shareware, and demos on the Internet. ConnSENSE Bulletin. 52-58.
Besio, S., & Salminen, A. (2004). Children and youngsters and technology. Technology and Disability, 16. 115-117.
Campbell, D. M. (2004). Assistive technology and universal instructional design: A postsecondary perspective. Family & Excellence in Education, 37. 167-173.
Cooke, A. A. (2004, March). History of accessibility at IBM. In AccessWorld, 5(2).
Docu+Design. (n.d.) Mouse Keys. (On-line). Web: http://www.daube.ch/share/win02.html.
Dynavox Systems. (n.d.) DynaVox - Facts at a Glance. DynaVox Systems: Communications Systems for Life. (On-line). Web: http://www.dynavoxtech.com/.
EEOC. (2002). The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA): 1990-2002. Online publication of The US Equal Employment Opportunity Commission. (On-line). Web http://www.eeoc.gov/ada/.
Elkind, K. (2004). Choosing assistive technology for teaching reading and writing. Media & Methods, 40(6). 20-21.
Freedom Scientific. (n.d.) JAWS for Windows. (On-line). Web: http://www.freedomscientific.com/fs_products/software_jawsinfo.asp.
Hodges, A. (1992). Alan Turing: The Enigma. Random House, London.
IntelliTools. (n.d.) IntelliKeys - The Alternative Programmable Keyboard. (On-line). Web: http://store.cambiumlearning.com/ProgramPage.aspx?parentId=074003405&functionID=009000008&site=itc.
Lankutis, T., & Kennedy, K. (2002). Assistive technology and the multiage classroom. Technology & Media, 22(8). 38-43.
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Roach, R. (2002). Assistive technology comes into focus. Black Issues in Higher Education, 19(11). 20-24.
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Case Study: Seeking a Post-Secondary Education
By
Introduction
Unfortunately, without affirmative action, it is unlikely that many disabled people will be allowed to attend college. This also will mean that many disabled people will not be able to obtain careers consonant with their abilities.
A Case in Point
I was born a quadriplegic, with a severe case of Cerebral Palsy. People constantly told me that I would never attend a university and achieve my goal of becoming a psychologist for the physically challenged. Growing up, I had to endure silly remarks such as, "Yvonne, how can you hope to go to college when you do not know basic algebra? You cannot even count change. And besides, you do not have normal intelligence to compete with normal students."
Such put downs have not stopped me from achieving my long and short-term goals. They only made me work harder to overcome the obstacles in my path. My family taught me to always strive to become a better individual and that I can never fail as long I keep trying. These words of advice have helped me to develop a positive attitude that anything can be achieved.
People tend to judge me by my physical disability. They see my wheelchair, my arms and legs flailing in all crazy directions, and my speech impediment, and they more often than not assume that I am mentally retarded. Proving that I have a good mind has always been a frustrating challenge because most people never take the time to look beyond the surface to discover how intelligent I am.
For instance, school psychologists and learning specialists had difficulties determining how smart I was. In other words, these professionals administered a batch of standardized tests that required me to point with a finger and verbally express my thoughts. I scored very poorly on these tests because I did not have any voluntary control to point with my finger and the professionals had trouble understanding my speech.
This happened frequently throughout my school years. I was outraged to be labeled as having very low intelligence, but I was nonetheless able to demonstrate that I had above average intelligence by performing quite well in my honors classes.
During my high school years, I was not allowed to use a computer to complete homework assignments and examinations. No reason was given for this; it was just the way things still were back then (mid to late 1980s). As a result, I had to verbally dictate test answers and essays to my full-time aide. This was the beginning of a hard struggle that lasted close to five years. My aide could not understand my speech; nor did she know any of the subject matter. As a result, I did very poorly in my classes.
Naturally, I was extremely frustrated because I knew and understood my subjects well, but I could not successfully communicate what I wanted to say. I was constantly reminded that I had low intelligence and that I should enroll in a United Cerebral Palsy school. After visiting a UCP school and witnessing other physically disabled students not engaged in learning anything, I spent a whole week in bed crying. I became extremely depressed.
Suddenly, I just decided to stand up for my educational rights because I simply refused to spend the rest of my life gazing at the ceiling. Moreover, I found the courage to see my counselor about seeking alternatives for testing my knowledge.
My counselor realized that I had a mind; furthermore, he arranged to have a tutor assist me with tests and homework assignments. Verbally dictating answers to a professional tutor was one hundred percent better than doing so with my uneducated aide.
However, I was still angry and depressed because I had to start taking resource classes due to my poor grades. Taking these classes insulted my intelligence. There were numerous times when I wanted to commit suicide; nevertheless, I never gave up pursuing my ambitions.
I learned that most physically handicapped children are reduced to wasting away and eventually wind up in adult training centers designed for the mentally retarded. This awareness caused me to fight with all of my might to become a well educated individual.
After graduating high school, I was obliged to enroll in two state institutions designed to assist the physically handicapped to become productive members of society. Since I always had a burning desire to attend college, I was completely dumbfounded to hear my that high school teachers, Child Study Team (a group of educational experts who help disabled students adjust to public school), counselors, and parents had casually decided that college was inappropriate for me. My world shattered into pieces when I realized that all of my hard work through high school was for nothing and that even my own parents had lost faith in me.
Since nobody thought that I could attend college, I spent the next eight months being physically, psychologically, and verbally abused by the instructors in the two state institutions for the disabled. Convincing the staff members that I wanted to lead an independent life and attend college only made matters worst.
The abusive treatment I received was so unbearable that I stopped eating and I was tempted (again) to commit suicide. I wrote long poems and joined a church group as a temporary means of escape. I rebelled because I certainly did not want to be isolated from society and I did not want to give up my dream of becoming a psychologist for people who are physically disabled.
Finally, I was able to convince my parents to bring me back home. My family was incredulous to discover that I was on the verge of death. I spent the next month recovering at home in bed. My bed became a safety net because I felt that nobody could harm me there.
Then, my mother read an article about a computer program for the physically disabled that was being offered at Brookdale Community College, in New Jersey. Since I now thought that I was a first class moron, I was very hesitant about starting life all over again. Once I enrolled in the computer program, however, I felt like a different person because I was able to successfully demonstrate my knowledge without being put down. After being in the program for one day, the director encouraged me to take the Basic Skills Test which would allow me to enroll in college level classes!
My will power was restored when I passed the test with flying colors and started to compete with non-disabled college students. Suddenly, I had brand new energy to overcome my daily obstacles. There were times when various professors were so frightened that they did not want to teach me. I sought affirmative action by speaking and writing letters to the dean. It felt terrific to stand up for my rights and thus overcome these seemingly insurmountable problems.
To conclude, if I had not sought affirmative action, I certainly would not have completed my Associate degree in Liberal Arts at Brookdale Community College (1994), gone on to get my Bachelor’s in Psychology at Monmouth University (1999), and finally attained my Master’s in Psychology from Walden University in 2002.
Unfortunately, I still have not achieved my goal of becoming a psychologist for the disabled, but I continue to hope that that dream will one day become a reality.
Case Study Recommendations
Yvonne Singer, co-author of this paper, has cerebral palsy. She wears a "hat" with a pointer attached to interact with her computer at home (see Case Study).
Yvonne Singer ysinger@worldnet.att.net, MS