"When you gag the first time, you should run into the house."
"The best way to keep hogs from smelling is to cut off their noses."
"Factory hog farmers will tell you there is no proof
that hog
farming poses any risk to public health."
U.S.Hog
Hydrogen Sulfide Poisoning:
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
Hydrogen sulfide - colourless, extremely poisonous, gaseous compound
formed by sulfur with hydrogen.
"hydrogen sulfide" Encyclopædia Britannica Online.
<http://search.eb.com/bol/topic?eu=42673&sctn=1>
Copyright © 1994-2000 Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
............................................................................................................................................................................................
"At higher concentrations, for example 100 to 150, they are no longer
going to be smelling it. At approximately 250 parts per million the person
is going to feel nauseous, they'll probably have a headache, they may feel
dizzy, they may be vomiting and they may also begin staggering at that
point. Anywhere above 500 to 700 parts per million can actually knock a
person down and kill them so people working in barns need to be aware of
the effect the gas can have."
07 March 2002 :
Swine Industry Emphasizes Hydrogen Sulfide Awareness
CANADA - Farm-Scape: Episode 907. Farm-Scape is a Wonderworks Canada
production and is distributed courtesy of Manitoba Pork Council and Sask
Pork.
Farm-Scape is a Wonderworks Canada production and is distributed courtesy
of Manitoba Pork Council and Sask Pork.
Farm-Scape, Episode 907
The Prairie Swine Center reports the response to a program introduced
to teach swine barn workers to protect themselves from the dangers of Hydrogen
Sulfide gas has been tremendous.
Hydrogen sulfide gas is formed as manure ferments and it's a major
concern in barns where manure is handled in a liquid form.
The pork industry has taken a proactive approach to dealing with the
danger and in November 2000 the Prairie Swine Center introduced a hydrogen
sulfide awareness course. Training Programs Coordinator Mary Petersen says,
since its introduction, close to a thousand swine barn workers have taken
part in the program.
"Occupational health and safety recommends that ten parts per million
is the exposure limit that a person can be exposed to in an eight hour
work day.
If a person is exposed to higher concentrations of the gas, at about
100 to 150 parts per million the person will no longer smell it.
Under those concentrations it will smell like rotten eggs so a person
is aware of the gas. At higher concentrations, for example 100 to 150,
they are no longer going to be smelling it. At approximately 250 parts
per million the person is going to feel nauseous, they'll probably have
a headache, they may feel dizzy, they may be vomiting and they may also
begin staggering at that point. Anywhere above 500 to 700 parts per million
can actually knock a person down and kill them so people working in barns
need to be aware of the effect the gas can have."
The awareness course focuses on the properties of the gas and its dangers
and on the use of hydrogen sulfide gas monitors and self contained breathing
equipment and it's been delivered throughout Saskatchewan, Alberta and
into Manitoba.
Petersen says some of the larger producers are insisting on everyone
working in their barns, even on a part time basis, be aware of the dangers.
For Farmscape.Ca, I'm Bruce Cochrane.
............................................................................................................................................................................................
The Times-News Online -- Twin Falls, Idaho
Sunday, November 4, 2001
http://www.magicvalley.com/tn/topstory/index.asp?StoryID=1
Taking aim at the stink: Dairy regulators balance old,
new charges
By Michael Journee
Times-News writer
------------
PHOTO -
Heather Jensen uses a Jerometer to test for hydrogen sulfide in the
area surrounding Hank Hafliger's dairy south of Filer. Jensen and John
Chatburn, back, are employed by the state Department of Agriculture to
monitor the odor of the dairy as Hafliger works to comply with new odor
laws.
LISA M. COLLARD/The Times-News
-----------
TWIN FALLS -- When John Chatburn heard
lawmakers talk about putting dairy odor regulation under his purview last
winter, he knew it would be a challenge.
Even with four new full-time employees
dedicated solely to the new charge, dealing with highly emotional and divisive
issues surrounding the odors generated by large-scale dairies would've
been enough.
On top of that, he would have to reformat
his thinking that his role as protector and promoter of dairy farmers at
the Department of Agriculture might be changing. Not to mention he would
be breaking new ground -- no one at the department had ever done it before.
"What we have to do is get rid of the
dairy sewer odor," Chatburn said Thursday while taking hydrogen sulfide
readings south of Filer.
He must get rid or the odor. If he doesn't,
life will become increasingly difficult for dairymen as politicians and
the big dairies' neighbors become increasingly impatient.
He's caught between his traditional
role as protector and his new role as policeman.
The last six months have been a challenge
for Chatburn.
For people living south of Filer, the
challenge of dealing with dairy odors has lasted much longer.
"It's not a pleasant thing to have lived
through the last two years," said Ginny Gunn. "All we ask for is for someone
to please make it go away."
Gunn and her neighbors, who found themselves
down wind from Hank Hafliger's Desert Rose Farms dairy when it was built
in the spring of 2000, consider it a great day when dairy's waste lagoon
doesn't make the air in their home nauseating.
Many say they want to leave. But their
nice homes along a picturesque rocky wash called Cedar Draw can't be sold
-- at least not for what they should be worth. When conditions are right
-- temperature, wind direction and lagoon conditions -- the stench from
the dairy settles down in the draw and saturates everything.
Chatburn says measures taken at the
dairy have improved the situation, and he has the numbers to back him up.
Hydrogen sulfide readings taken in the
neighborhood by department staff since mid-summer show a marked improvement.
The notations of "pungent" odors on the inspectors' test results are much
farther apart now than in July.
Chatburn recognizes the problem isn't
solved. Even though the numbers have improved overall, spikes in the hydrogen
sulfide readings still occur -- some as high as any this summer. And he
realizes the cooler weather is likely affecting recent hydrogen sulfide
readings.
"The real test for Hafliger will come
in the spring when the weather warms up," Chatburn said.
That has the neighbors worried. They
readily admit things are better, but they're not willing to give measures,
which include a number of waste-handling stipulations, taken by the department
full credit.
Those measures include taking twice-daily
hydrogen sulfide readings in Cedar Draw, if inspectors detect any odor
with their own sniffers, and checking regularly to ensure Hafliger is meeting
his side of the odor management agreement. So far he has.
Despite these efforts, the smell still
comes.
"The Department of Agriculture continues
to receive odor complaints on a regular basis," Chatburn said.
Gunn complained to Chatburn just last
weekend.
But Chatburn said he doesn't believe
Hafliger's dairy is the culprit every time and that neighbors, who have
become very sensitive to any odors wafting their way, may just have to
get used to some smells.
"Some of (the readings) might not be
very high, and some of it might come from that dairy, but not all of it
does," Chatburn said.
Land application of waste from other
non-flush dairies on crop fields nearby is the culprit of some of the recent
complaints, he said. And there's a myriad of other practices used by ranchers
and farmers that could be fouling the air.
Chatburn said, and the neighbors
agree, that the septic, rotten-egg odor created by the hydrogen sulfide
from Desert Rose's lagoon isn't the only smell oozing down Cedar Draw.
Gunn described "horrible dead-animal smell" outside her home earlier this
week. And the inspector routinely characterize strong odors in their notes:
pungent, rotten egg, septic, ammonia, musty -- because not all of it is
hydrogen sulfide.
But the smell still comes. That's why
the neighbors and other dairy critics are pushing for the new rules by
which the Department of Agriculture regulates livestock odors to be toughened.
Under the rules, the department is to
monitor the odors, figure out why it stinks, and fix it. There are no punitive
measures taken as long as the dairy owner is doing what the department
tells him to do to fix his problem.
It infuriates the neighbors, and has
lawmakers considering a modification the rules to include some kind of
punitive trigger, or even perhaps changing the department's mission statement
to include protection of health and safety, which some people say is bound
to be threatened under such circumstances.
Times-News politics and state government
reporter Michael Journee can be reached at (208) 735-3231, or by e-mail
at mjournee@magicvalley.com.
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
Nebraska
Sniffing Out Problem in South Sioux City
Published Friday, May 11, 2001
Go to Sniffing Out Problem in South
Sioux City
BY PAUL HAMMEL
WORLD-HERALD STAFF WRITER
South Sioux City, Neb. - People in this town are getting sick of the frequent, rotten-egg smell in the air. That much is clear.
What is not clear is what will be prompted by a first-of-its-kind scientific study that found an association between high levels of toxic hydrogen sulfide gases in the air and increased emergency room visits for respiratory diseases and asthma.
Opinions differed broadly at the first public discussion of the study at a meeting here Thursday night. About 90 people attended.
Local residents said the study validated their health concerns. They called for tougher enforcement and tougher standards on meatpacking plants and others that release the rotten-egg-smelling gas into the air.
State officials called for more studies, saying one "exploratory" research project is not enough.
And officials of meatpacker IBP Inc. called for consideration of the company's soon-to-be completed, $13 million covered waste-treatment lagoons, saying the lagoons would virtually eliminate releases from IBP's tannery and meat-packing plant in nearby Dakota City.
"That's the bigger story," said Gene Leman, chief executive officer of IBP's fresh meats division, of the completion of the treatment facility, which is expected to be finished in 90 days with the decommissioning of seven uncovered lagoons. "It's a great system."
But only a few feet away, area residents - including some who have battled the odor issue for the past decade - said the study confirmed their claims that the gas causes headaches and nausea and exacerbates asthma and other breathing maladies for people living nearby.
"You have told us, yes, there is a corporate polluter in the area, and we need to do something about it," said Robert Black of Homer, Neb.
David Krogh, a Dakota City resident and activist with a local citizens group, said the study should inspire the State of Nebraska to toughen its enforcement and lower its standard for hydrogen sulfide from the current 100 parts per billion in the air to 30 ppb, the standard used in the study to indicate a high level of the gas.
However, Dr. Adi Pour, the Nebraska state toxicologist, said the single exploratory study probably was not enough to prompt a tougher standard.
The research, conducted by the Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry, a wing of the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, covered Dakota City and South Sioux City. Using 19 monitoring stations, the agency tracked emergency-room visits for days after high levels of hydrogen sulfide in the air.
It found that visits for respiratory diseases by children increased 20 percent to 40 percent. Visits for asthma for both children and adults increased, but researchers said the numbers involved in the study were too small to draw a more solid conclusion than to "suggest" a cause and effect.
The lead investigator in the study, Dr. Dave Campagna, said the study already had drawn national interest, but he emphasized that it was exploratory because there were no previous studies to compare with.
"This is the first step," he said. While it is "good science," studies in other locations will be needed to confirm it, Campagna said.
IBP officials seized on that, insisting that the study was inconclusive in nature.
"I feel sorry for people with asthma," Leman said. "But I don't think the link here is strong enough."
The study did not identify the source of the hydrogen sulfide releases. At least 13 sources have been identified in the area, though local residents point to IBP as the major contributor. A 1999 report by the company indicated that it released more than 1,900 pounds a day of the substance. Releases have been cut significantly, state officials said, due to the new treatment system. Exact figures were not available.
Shelley Kaderly, an air-quality administrator with the Nebraska Department of Environmental Quality, said IBP is "a significant source" of the hydrogen sulfide emissions. "We haven't identified other significant sources," Kaderly said.
She said that the state does not have enough monitors to pinpoint a single source, but that she would look at the new study's results. She added that IBP's new covered lagoons and sulfide stripping and burning system had significantly reduced its emissions.
Leman said the study indicated that a couple of the monitoring sites that found high levels of hydrogen sulfide were near other potential sources, including an open lagoon at a trailer park. IBP, he said, was the only source that has taken steps to reduce its emissions.
That brought little solace to some local residents, who said they've fought the problem for years with action coming only recently, after the U.S. Department of Justice sued IBP.
Merrill Hale, a City Council member in South Sioux City, said the city has been frustrated in its efforts to solve the odor problem. The study, he said, should provide ammunition to solve the problem.
......................................................................................................................................................................................
RENVILLE COUNTY COMMISSIONERS
RESOLUTION 33-01
RENVILLE COUNTY BOARD RESOLUTION
IN FAVOR Of ATTORNEY GENERAL POSITION
IN VALADCO AIR EMISSIONS MATTER
(ESPECIALLY FARM #2, SECTION 27, NORFOLK TOWNSHIP,
RENVILLE COUNTY, MINNESOTA)
WHEREAS, The Renville County Commissioners have received scores of complaints from various neighbors of ValAdCo's facilities in Renville County as to noxious odor and heath effects from those odors and emissions; and
WHEREAS, The Renville County Commissioners are aware of various findings by the Minnesota Board of Public Health that ValAdCo's level of emissions of such air pollutants as hydrogen sulfide may pose a threat to the public's health; and
WHEREAS, Renville County is aware of the Minnesota Attorney General's
Office's desire to be present during pending mediation and settlement negotiations
with the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency and ValAdCo that relate especially
to ValAdCo Farm No. 2, in Section 27. Norfolk Township, Renville County,
and that the Minnesota Attorney General's Office may have ultimate authority
to enforce any stipulation that would come out of those proceedings and
would have the authority if those negotiations break down, and even if
they don't, to institute public nuisance law actions.
THEREFORE, BE IT RESOLVED, That the Renville County Board of Commissioners supports the Minnesota Attorney General's Office's demand to be included in any mediation/settlement discussions with regard to ValAdCo's facilities in Renville County and would support the Attorney General's Office in any public nuisance litigation that it would need to undertake to address this continuing public health problem.
Resolution Passed on May 22, 2001 by the Renville County Commissioners,
with all five commissioners voting in favor.
Date: May 25, 2001
Robert W. Mehlhouse, Chair
Renville County Board of Commissioners
Date: May 24, 2001
William Wells
Renville County Administrator
Renville County Office Building
410 E. DePue Ave., Rm 315
Olivia, MN 56277-1484
Phone: 320-523-3710
Fax: 320-523-3748
Affirmative Action - Equal Opportunity Employer
..........................................................................................................................................................................................
Letter, Draft Stipulation Agreement - Minnesota Pollution Control Agency to ValAdCo.
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
Office of the Commissioner
April 27, 2001
CERTIIFIED MAIL NO. 7000 O520 0016 4905 8535
RETURN RECEIPT REQUESTED
Mr. Eddie Crum
ValAdCo
209 North Main Street
P.O. Box 392
Renville, MN 56284
RE: Draft Stipulation Agreement
ValAdCo Farm No. 2 Nursery/Finish Facility
Section 27, Norfolk Township, Renville
County
Dear Mr. Crum:
The Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA) received the letter dated March 14, 2001, from your attorney, Dick Nowlin. As stated in the MPCA's November 29, 2000, letter, the MPCA's goals in our negotiations on the Draft Stipulation Agreement are to resolve outstanding past noncompliance issues promptly, move forward to permitting all facilities owned and operated by ValAdCo, and assure meaningful progress to maintaining compliance. The MPCA understands that you agree with these goals. However, your letter of March 14, 2001, does not seem consistent with these goals.
Based on our review of the March 14, 2001, offer letter, the MPCA concludes that our Draft Stipulation Agreement negotiations are at an impasse and the MPCA must take a next step to bring about a resolution to ValAdCo's continuing noncompliance. Therefore, the MPCA proposes to use the service of a mediator to finalize the Draft Stipulation Agreement. The MPCA believes the Draft Stipulation Agreement should be finalized no later than May 15, 2001. The MPCA intends to move forward to identify qualified mediators and will provide you with the names of two to three acceptable mediators. The MPCA requests a response from you, within ten (10) days of receiving this letter, indicating whether you are willing to participate in mediation.
Should you elect not to participate in mediation to bring about a quick
conclusion to the Draft Stipulation Agreement negotiations, the MPCA will
request the Attorney General's Office to file suit on behalf of the MPCA
against ValAdCo, for failure to meet applicable environmental standards.
Mr. Eddie Crum
Page 2
April 27, 2001
Attached is a reiteration of the MPCA's latest settlement offer. The MPCA understands that the issue regarding an air quality permit is resolved, and you will be receiving a separate letter from the MPCA staff regarding that matter.
If you have any questions please contact Myrna Halbach, of my staff,
at (320) 214-3794 in the MPCA Willmar Subdistrict Office.
Sincerely,
Karen A. Studders
Commissioner
KAS:kr
Attachment
cc: Kathleen Winters, Assistant Attorney General
Mark Erickson, Renville County
Scott Refsland, ValAdCo
Dick Nowlin, Lunquist and Vennum
Mike Valentine, Earth Tech
520 Lafayette Rd. N.; St. Paul, MN 55155-4194; (651) 296-6300 (voice);
(651) 292-5332 (TTY)
St. Paul - Brainerd - Detroit Lakes - Duluth , Mankato , Marshall -
Rochester - Willmar;
www.pca.state.mn.us
Equal Opportunity Employer
Printed on recycled paper
________________________
ATTACHMENT A
1. Impermeable Cover System
a. The installation of the new cover and air emission treatment system at the Farm 2 site cannot be considered a Supplemental Environmental Project (SEP) to reduce the civil penalty. The U. S. Environmental Protection Agency and the MPCA guidelines define a SEP as a project done by a respondent "in addition" to what would normally be required to settle an enforcement action for a particular site. The ValAdCo is "required" to perform corrective actions at the Farm 2 site to end the violations of the state's ambient hydrogen sulfide air standards that have occurred at the site for the past three (3) consecutive years. The ValAdCo has chosen to construct an impermeable cover and air emission treatment system for the two manure storage basins as their corrective actions.
b. Once the MPCA approval is given to ValAdCo for the installation of the new cover and air emission treatment system, ValAdCo shall have sixty (60) days to install the system.
c. Upon the date of completion of the installation of the system or the end of the sixty-day installation period, whichever occurs first, a sixty (60) day "shake-down period" shall commence. During this time, ValAdCo will be allowed to operate the new system at the Farm 2 site without being subjected to NI:PCA enforcement actions if violations of the ambient hydrogen sulfide air standards occur during the shakedown period.
d. Upon expiration of the shake-down period, five (5) actual violations of either and/or both the five (5) day (30ppb) or one (1) year (50ppb) ambient hydrogen sulfide air standards, shall "trigger" the need to implement the Contingency Action Plan for the Farm 2 site.
2. Contingency Action Plan
a. The Contingency Action Plan (CAP) shall be triggered by five (5) actual violations of either and/or both the five (5) day (30ppb) or one (1) year (50ppb) ambient hydrogen sulfide air standards at the Farm 2 site.
b. ValAdCo shall begin implementing the CAP at the Farm 2 site within sixty (60) days of being required to do so by the NFPCA.
c. ValAdCo shall complete the implementation of the CAP within twelve (12) months after the end of the sixty (60) day period in item 2.b. above.
d. The CAP for the Farm 2 site shall include the following general items. The specifics on each item will be delineated in the CAP submitted by VaLAdCo and approved by the MPCA:
i. Reduction of animal numbers.
ii. Implementation of a manure solids separation and management system.
iii. Closure of the larger primary manure storage basin at Farm 2 in accordance with all local, state and federal rules and regulations.
3. Contingency Fund or Environmental Management Fund
a. The ValAdCo shall establish a fund in the amount of $400,000 in the form of a letter of credit.
b. The fund shall be maintained for a period of five (5) years from the date of establishment.
c. The fund shall be used to manage manure, manage manure storage basins, permanently close manure storage basins, or environmental problems (air emissions, discharges, etc.) at any of the VaLAdCo facilities in the state of Minnesota in the event ValAdCo cannot or will not do so.
d. The fund shall be discontinued after a five (5) year period provided ValAdco complies with all local, state and federal environmental regulations and permits at ValAdCo facilities in the state of Minnesota.
e. The ValAdCo can use a maximum of twenty percent (20 percent) of the fund for facility improvements at any of ValAdCo's sites within the state of Minnesota. However, the amount of money withdrawn must be reimbursed back to the field with six (6) months of withdrawal.
4. Civil Penalty
a. ValAdCo shall pay a civil penalty of $300,000 to the NIPCA to settle all violations of the ambient hydrogen sulfide air standards that occurred at the Farm 2 site in 1999, and 2000.
b. ValAdCo shall pay $1 00,000 of the penalty amount within thirty (3 0) days of the MPCA requiring ValAdCo to do so. The remaining $200,000 shall be paid to the NEPCA once the Contingency Fund ends as outlined in item 3 above.
5. Hydrogen Sulfide Monitoring
a. The ValAdCo shall monitor ambient hydrogen sulfide concentrations at all its facilities other than the Farm 2 site with the use of a Jerome Meter.
b. Sampling shall commence within fourteen (14) days of the effective date of tile Draft Stipulation Agreement.
c. Sampling shall occur sixteen (16) times per sampling season per facility.
d. The ValAdCo will not be required to perform this sampling regime after five (5) years of sampling at the facilities. The five (5) year period shall begin thirty (30) days after the effective date of the Draft Stipulation Agreement. e. All sampling shall occur at dusk during low wind conditions for each facility.
f. Eight (8) of the sixteen (16) samplings shall be collected in the fall at turnover conditions in the manure storage basins for each facility.
g. Sampling data shall be submitted to the NFPCA within five (5) days of the sampling event for each facility.
h. The MPCA staff will randomly sample the ambient hydrogen sulfide concentrations at all the ValAdCo facilities with a Jerome meter or portable Minnesota Department of Agriculture (MDA) unit. The MPCA sampling may or may not coincide with ValAdCo's sampling dates.
i. One (1) potential to exceed at a particular facility from either ValAdCo's data or the MPCA's data shall trigger ValAdCo being required use a continuous, permanent or portable MDA monitor at the particular site at which the potential to exceed occurs in lieu of a Jerome Meter.
j . ValAdCo shall commence continuous ambient hydrogen sulfide monitoring at the particular site within thirty (30) days of being required to do so by the MPCA.
k. The operating permit for the particular site will be amended to include a continuous hydrogen sulfide air monitoring provision.
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
MINNESOTA DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH MEMO REGARDING HYDROGEN SULFIDE
LEVELS AT ValAdCo
February 15, 2000
After almost 5 years the citizens of Norfolk township, Olivia, Minnesota have finally received verification of their claims. Hydrogen Sulfide emission data confirms there is a potential threat to human health. The Minnesota Department of Health (MDH) issued a memo to the MinnesotaPollution Control agency on February 15, 2000, stating after review of the hydrogen sulfide monitoring data collected from the finishing site, section 27 Norfolk Township, Renville County, MN...." In summary, MDH believes that the monitored levels are high enough to pose a potential threat to human health. After consideration of the data collected and the circumstances involving the emission source, MDH believes that, for the protection and well being of human health, with out delay, action should be taken to reduce the emissions of hydrogen sulfide and bring the hydrogen sulfide emissions back in compliance with Minnesota rules 7009.0080."
Valadco was built in the fall of 1994, It has a two stage earthen basin holding 23 million gallons of liquid waste. This site houses up to 17,000 nursery and finishing hogs. Valadco's state of the art facility was force to cover their lagoons in the fall of 1998 because of high hydrogen sulfide emissions. Neighboring citizens have been complaining of headaches, nausea, diarrhea, congestion, eye irritation, muscle cramps, dizziness, and a whole host of other symptoms. They have been fighting for monitoring since July 5,1995.
The Minnesota pollution control agency declined to monitor the
air for hydrogen sulfide with accurate testing. Angry, citizens monitored
air emissions in the spring of 1996, passed legislation in 1996-97, finally
got continues monitoring in 1997, successfully forced Valadco to cover
the lagoons in 1998. The lagoon covers did not work for more than
two months.1999 Valadco had two times more violations with the covered
lagoon than
the previous year with out the cover.
It is sad to be excited about living in a potential threat to human
health but maybe this information will help others.
Julie Jansen
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
M I N N E S 0 T A MDH
DEPARTMENT of HEALTH
Memo
Date: February 15, 2000
To: Greg Ruff
Minnesota Pollution Control Agency
From: Kathy Norlien, Health Risk Assessment Unit
Division of Environmental Health
Subject: Review-of Hydrogen Sulfide Data ValAdCo
(Finishing
Site, Section 27, Norfork Township, Renville County, MN)
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
At the request of the Minnesota Pollution Control Agency (MPCA), the Minnesota Department of Health (MDH), Health Risk Assessment Unit, has completed review of monitoring data collected from the ValAdCo finishing site in Renville County, Minnesota. The data reviewed includes 1) 1998 data for hydrogen sulfide collected from April 6, 1998 through September 24, 1998, and 2) 1999 report for days where hydrogen sulfide concentrations were greater than or equal to 30 ppb (at least one 30 minute average per day). The 1999 data were collected between June 12th and September 15th.
In summary, MDH believes that monitored levels are high enough to pose a potential threat to human health. After consideration of the data collected and the circumstances involving the emission source, MDH believes that, for the protection and well being of human health, without delay, action should be taken to reduce the emissions of hydrogen sulfide and bring hydrogen sulfide emissions back in compliance with Minnesota Rules 7009.0080.
The standards and guidance described herein, have been written for the purpose of protecting human health and the quality of life for Minnesotans. This paper provides health-based guidance for hydrogen sulfide and summarizes the findings of monitoring performed at the fence line of the ValAdCo finishing site.
Full report: Minnesota Department of Health
.............................................................................................................................................................................................
Hydrogen Sulfide Poisioning (from living in close proximity
to factory hog farms.)
At least 19 people have died in accidents involving hydrogen
sulfide releases in manure pits.
The rotten egg gas emitted from intensive swine facilities and swine
lagoons
is hydrogen sulfide. Look at the follwing information.
Scientists found that people who work at or live near factory hog farms suffer from persistent symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, irritated eyes and running noses. Those unfortunate enough to be the neighbors of hog operations have long complained of such symptoms, but these studies are the first documented cases of the ill-effects of hog gases.
Common sources of hydrogen sulfide (H2S) include the following:
1) crude oil petroleum refineries (primarily sour
crude oil); 2) pulp and paper mills; 3) paper production; 4) municipal
sewage
treatment plants; 5) large hog farms-livestock operations (CAFOs);
......
Winston Salem Journal Editorial, Hazards of Hog Gases December 27, 1998
One doesn't need a doctorate to determine that the odor that wafts from factory hog farms can be offensive, but a compilation of three studies conducted in Iowa and Michigan suggests that hog gases could be hazardous to your health.
Scientists found that people who work at or live near factory hog farms suffer from persistent symptoms such as coughing, wheezing, irritated eyes and running noses. Those unfortunate enough to be the neighbors of hog operations have long complained of such symptoms, but these studies are the first documented cases of the ill-effects of hog gases.
At a hearing before a North Carolina policy-making committee with regulatory jurisdiction over factory hog farms earlier this month, Ken Rudo, the state toxicologist, said the odors are an airborne soup of more than 200 chemicals that can include bacteria, feed particles, pollens, molds and insect body parts.
In Rudo's professional opinion, these chemicals can ''cause all kinds of problems.''
A citizen's test in Renville Co., Minnesota found that one-quarter of 32 tests taken near several manure lagoons exceeded Minnesota air quality standards for hydrogen sulfide. This poisonous gas, usually associated with a "rotten egg" smell, has caused symptoms such as nausea, headaches, blackout periods and vomiting. (Land Stewardship Project, Minnesota.) Clouds of manure mist come and go with the wind, but the odor itself sinks into human tissue, clothing and furnishings and is released slowly over time, according to Duke University's Susan Schiffman.
People living downwind from hog factories suffer a variety of psychological and physiological problems, such as depression, frequent vomiting and respiratory complications. More than half of the people living within two miles of mega-hog sites reported an increase in allergies, sinus infection, nasal blockage and a lack of energy, according to a Family Farms for the Future (Putnam Co., Mo.) survey.
Odors can be nearly as intense four miles downwind as they are at the site. Residents in northern Missouri around PSF's facilities report odors have traveled 15 miles.
General information about the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide
http://www.inmotionmagazine.com/hwenv.html
http://www.all4democracy.org/hogscandals/1998/12-27-98Hazards%20of%20Hog%20Gases.html
http://lists.essential.org/dioxin-l/msg00016.html
http://www.mdch.state.mi.us/pha/envhea/H2S.htm
http://www.emedicine.com/EMERG/topic258.htm
http://www.pace-union.org/safety/safety_13.html
http://www.osha-slc.gov/OshDoc/Interp_data/I19950928.html
http://www.ae.iastate.edu/aen159.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/menus/toppits.html
......................................................................................................................................................................................
IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY
University Extension
Livestock Confinement Dust And Gases
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs6/mn98016.html
Summary
In typical modern livestock housing, where animals are densely confined, dusts from the animals, their feed, and their feces, ammonia (NH3) which comes primarily from the animals' urine and feces, and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) from manure pits, especially during agitation and emptying, can rise to harmful levels. Dust and gas levels are highest in winter, although dust levels increase whenever animals are fed, handled, or moved. Hazardous dusts and gases induce the strongest and most frequent human respiratory responses in swine confinement buildings. This unit concentrates on workers in these buildings, although similar respiratory responses could occur among poultry confinement workers or (less commonly and severely) workers in other types of confinement operations.
Confinement dusts and gases can affect any exposed person within a short time, and in extreme cases have caused sudden death or have forced owners, employees, and veterinarians to stay out of confinement buildings or seek other employment. Responses often vary from person to person, may affect any part of the respiratory tract, and may include irritant, toxic, or allergic processes. Potential responses include acute or chronic bronchitis (the most common reaction), increased airways reactivity, asthma, chronic airways obstruction, and a systemic influenza-like reaction, the toxic organic dust syndrome or TODS. When manure pits constructed underneath confinement buildings are agitated for emptying, the level of H2S can rise to lethal levels within seconds; this has caused a number of deaths. Researchers suspect that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may occur among confinement workers with long-term exposure.
When diagnosing and treating respiratory illness in confinement workers, physicians should make a conscientious attempt to discover links between exposure to dusts and gases in the houses and the illness. This will avoid use of nonspecific treatments that are ineffective in the long run. Instead a patient must be protected by reducing dust and gas levels in the confinement house through engineering and management practices, or by use of respirators. Confinement house workers should be monitored for development of chronic respiratory problems. Manure pits should never be entered without proper respiratory protection, and when pits are being agitated or emptied, workers should stay out of the pits and out of the buildings above them.
I. CONFINEMENT HOUSING AND ITS HAZARDS
Compared to conventional livestock housing, the typical confinement system is more enclosed and tightly constructed. A much higher density of animals is housed in these buildings, usually for 24 hours a day from birth to shipment to the slaughter house. Because large numbers of animals are confined in small spaces, these buildings must include devices to ventilate and heat the buildings and to dispose of animal wastes. Often, feeding and watering operations are semiautomatic or automatic. (See Fig. 1) Poultry confinement operations first appeared in the United States in the late 1950's. Swine confinement operations came into use a decade later. Today sheep, beef cattle, dairy cattle, and veal calves also are housed in confinement buildings, although far less commonly than swine and poultry. Quarters for these other animals often are not completely enclosed, or the animals may be kept outside for at least part of the year.
Manure is handled by one of two systems: it either drops through a slatted floor into a pit beneath the house where it remains until the manure slurry is pumped out to be distributed on fields (usually twice a year), or it is removed through any of several mechanisms to a storage pit or lagoon outside the building. Outside storage is typical of most newer systems, but a large number of older buildings with pits directly below the house remain in operation.
What toxic dusts and gases are found in confinement houses?
Dust is generated from animals and their feed, and dust and gases from animal wastes. These dusts and gases accumulate to concentrations that may be hazardous to human and animal health.
Each confinement house contains its own complex mixture of dusts and gases, which is dependent on numerous factors including ventilation of the building, the type of animals, how they are fed, and how their wastes are handled. (See Fig. 2) Dust and gas composition change within a single house over time. The types of confinement operations and corresponding dust and gas exposures are listed in Table 1. This unit concentrates on swine operations, where potentially hazardous dusts and gases and resulting health problems are best studied and are thought to be most extreme. Similar responses would occur most commonly among poultry confinement workers.
Table 1
Dusts and Gases In Various confinement Operations: Implications for Human Health
Type of
Confinement
Gases
operation Dusts
NH2 H2S(following manure
agitation)
=================================================================
swine major concern
moderate major concern
concern
poultry moderate concern
major none (manure is
concern stored as solid)
sheep minimal concern
moderate major concern, if
veal calf (lower dust
concern have liquid manure
dairy cattle concentrations,
system
beef cattle resulting in
fewer and less
severe inflammatory
reactions)
Dust particles contain approximately 25% protein, and range in size from less than 2 microns to 50 microns in diameter. One-third of the particles are within the respirable size range (less than 1011 in diameter). 125 Fecal material particles including proteins from gut epithelium are quite small and constitute the major alveolar burden, while large particles of feed grains form the major airways burden. Also present are animal dander, broken bits of hair, bacteria, bacterial endotoxins, pollen grains, insect parts, and fungal spores. The dust absorbs NH3 and possibly other toxic or irritating gases (e.g. H2S), multiplying the potential hazards of each gas individually. Ammonia, for example, may adsorb to respirable particles and be drawn deep into the lungs where it possibly could cause irritation or increase inflammatory responses to the dust.
Toxic, irritating, and asphyxiating gases are continuously generated in the manure pit, and can rise into a confinement house. Of the 40-plus gas types in anaerobically degenerating manure, H2S, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), and carbon monoxide (CO) are present most commonly and in highest concentrations. The majority of NH3 is thought to be released by bacterial action on urine and feces on the confinement house floors. Carbon monoxide and CO2 may be produced by heating systems in winter, as well as by the animals' respiration (CO2 only).
Who is exposed to these dusts and gases, and when?
Dust and gas concentrations in swine confinement buildings can be high enough to affect anyone who enters, but persons with long-term occupational exposures are in greatest danger of developing chronic problems and possibly irreversible lung damage. Confinement house owners and managers, hired hands, and farm family members may work in the houses anywhere from a few hours a week to eight or more hours daily. (See Fig. 3) During this time, workers are preparing feed, feeding animals, cleaning the building, sorting and moving animals from one building to another, and performing routine vaccinations, treatments, or other management and maintenance procedures. The turnover rate of hired swine confinement house workers is quite high, and some owners have had to sell their operations because they could not work in their own units, reportedly because of respiratory problems. Some veterinarians who entered houses sporadically to treat sick animals have reported that the severity of their respiratory reactions forces them to stay out of these buildings, or to use respirators effective in reducing exposure.
Dust and gas loads increase in winter when the houses are tightly closed to conserve heat, and when CO and CO2 are released from poorly vented or improperly functioning heaters. Dust loads also increase when animals are being moved, handled, and fed. Ventilation systems frequently do not reduce dust or gas levels adequately, so that levels remain unhealthful for humans. When ventilation systems fail for several hours, CO2 from animal respiration, heaters, and manure pits can rise to asphyxiating levels. Although some massive animal losses have been attributed to this situation, it is probably not a human health threat.
Hydrogen sulfide from manure pits is most hazardous when the pits are fully or partially beneath the houses. However, if gases from outside pits are permitted to backflow, they too can enter confinement units. Manure pit gases pose an acute hazard when the liquid manure slurry is agitated, a common operation performed to suspend solids so that pits can be pumped empty. During agitation, H2S can be released rapidly, soaring from usual ambient levels of less than 5 ppm to lethal levels of over 500 ppm within seconds.20 Animals have died and workers have become seriously ill in swine confinement buildings when H2S has risen from agitated pits underneath. Several workers have died when entering a pit during or soon after the emptying process to repair pumping equipment or clean out solids.20 Persons attempting to rescue these workers also have died. Workers may be exposed to high H2S levels when they enter the pit to retrieve animals or tools, or to repair ventilation systems or cracks in the cement.
Swine confinement houses and resulting health problems are concentrated in the Corn Belt of the Midwest, but are also found in western Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, and in southeastern states including North Carolina and Georgia. Poultry confinement houses and resulting respiratory problems are concentrated in the Northeast, Southeast, Midwest, and Far West. Other types of confinement operations are ,primarily located in the Midwest's Corn Belt.
How commonly does such exposure occur?
In the United States, an estimated 700,000 persons work in confinement operations. This number includes owner-operators, spouses, children, employees, and veterinarians. In a highly agricultural state such as Iowa, over 80,000 persons (or an estimated 53% of the people working with swine) work in swine confinement buildings. Included in this number are spouses and children who may work short periods of time.
The largest group of exposed workers with the most frequent and severe health problems is associated with swine confinement houses. Here, the average dust load is six milligrams per cubic meter. Buildings with 10 to 20 milligrams are common, concentrations high enough so that one is unable to see clearly across a 100 foot room. Concentrations of H2S, CO2, and CO may exceed levels recommended as safe in industrial occupational settings. Nearly 70% of swine confinement workers experience one or more symptoms of respiratory illness or irritation. Prevalence of respiratory illness among workers in nonswine confinement operations is lower.
II. RESPIRATORY EFFECTS OF INHALING CONFINEMENT HOUSE DUSTS AND GASES
Inhalation of confinement house dusts and gases produces a complex set of respiratory responses. An individual's response depends on characteristics of the inhaled components (such as composition, particulate size, and antigenicity) and on the individual's susceptibility, which is tempered by extant respiratory conditions (including allergies and asthma), reactivity of the bronchi, and smoking history. Irritant, toxic, or allergic processes may be involved, alone or in combination. Since dusts include both respirable (~10 microns ) and larger (10--50 microns ) particles, lung tissues, large airways, and small airways may all be affected. For the most part, responses cannot be tied to a specific dust or gas component. Specific mechanisms involved often cannot be defined, and conditions may be described symptomatically.
Acute, delayed, and chronic responses are described in following paragraphs and outlined in Table 3. Descriptions concentrate on health problems of swine confinement workers. Hazardous exposures of other types of confinement operations have been listed in Table 1; respiratory problems vary accordingly.
Symptoms of swine confinement workers are listed in Table 2. The most common respiratory symptoms (cough, sputum production, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and wheezing) are manifestations of airways disease, composed of bronchitis often associated with increased airways reactivity Evidence suggests that those exposed become increasingly reactive to the confinement environment with increasing exposure (greater than two hours per day and six years work experience). In general, the symptoms increase among smokers and also increase as the number of swine raised increases. Health effects are also greater among those with pre-existing respiratory problems (hay fever, bronchitis) and among those with heart trouble or allergies. Chest tightness, coughing, nasal, and eye symptoms have been experienced in some persons within 30 minutes of entering these houses for the first time, but usually two or more hours of exposure are required. These symptoms usually disappear 24 to 48 hours after leaving the unit, although they can persist for several days or weeks or even months among workers exposed for several years. A small percentage, 12%, of these cases are thought to be specific allergic-mediated illnesses such as asthma (classical type 1 reactions), while the remaining proportion appears to be nonallergic reactions.
Table 2 Symptoms of Swine Confinement Workers
Symptom
Prevalence
Cough
67%
Sputum or phlegm
56%
Scratchy throat
54%
Runny nose
45%
Burning or watering eyes 39%
Headaches
37%
Tightness of chest
36%
Shortness of breath
30%
Wheezing
27%
Muscle aches and pains 25%
Manure pit agitation can result in the sudden release of large quantities of H2S causing H2S intoxication (See Fig. 4) At moderately high concentrations (100-400 ppm), H2S produces rhinitis, cough, dyspnea, tracheobronchitis, and possibly pulmonary edema; at higher concentrations, sudden collapse associated with respiratory paralysis and pulmonary edema occurs. A number of deaths of confinement workers have resulted from this exposure.
Delayed responses include a toxic organic dust syndrome (TODS) experienced four to six hours after working for several hours in a confinement house during particularly dusty operations such as handling, moving, or sorting animals. Symptoms include fever, malaise, muscle aches and pains, headache, cough, and tightness of chest. This episodic problem, experienced by about 10% of workers in confinement buildings,1 may be the same toxic syndrome resulting from exposure to decayed plant material (see Unit 2) and grain dusts (see Unit 3). Inhaled endotoxins from aerosolized gram-negative bacteria might cause this syndrome.
Chronic health effects are manifest as chronic bronchitis with or without airways obstruction, experienced by 58% of all swine confinement workers. This is the most commonly defined chronic health problem of this occupational group, and is suffered by three times as many swine confinement workers as farmers who work in conventional swine housing units or in agricultural operations other than swine or poultry production. Symptoms include chronic cough, with excess production of phlegm and sometimes chronic wheezing. Smokers experience a greater prevalence and severity of chronic bronchitis than do nonsmokers. Most workers removed from the confinement house environment become asymptomatic (in the absence of smoking) within a few months, but bronchitic symptoms in some workers can persist for two years or more.
Chronic or irreversible airways obstruction other than chronic bronchitis has not been identified, but long-term lung damage may be occurring. Confinement workers' lung functions do not differ significantly from those of workers in conventional swine buildings when baseline PFT's (FEV and FVC) are measured in the morning, before work begins.1721 However, these pulmonary function values of most confinement house workers do decrease significantly through the workday. In addition, the severity of chronic bronchitic symptoms increases in workers with a longer history of confinement house work. This suggests that chronic obstructive pulmonary disease may occur among these workers in future years. Evidence of permanent lung damage has not yet been found, possibly because swine confinement houses are a relatively new innovation or because there have been no systematic clinical studies to assess confinement workers. In 1981, the average swine producer with confinement structures had used these structures for only six years.
Because of the high concentrations of animals and associated microorganisms, infectious diseases transmissible to humans are especially hazardous when contracted by confined animals. Some of these infectious diseases are described in Unit 7.
Diagnosis
Use of diagnostic aids is of secondary importance to a detailed clinical and occupational history. Remember that a patient's response to confinement dusts and gases is variable, and that one or more conditions may be occurring simultaneously. Question a patient in detail about chief complaints, including questions on how long symptoms have been present and the time relationship of symptoms to work exposure. Take an in-depth personal and family medical history, including questions on allergies, asthma, and hobbies or personal habits (such as smoking) that might complicate the issue. Ask how many hours per day or week the patient works in confinement buildings, how long the patient has held this job, and what conditions prevail within the confinement building.
Physicians may fail to relate a patient's symptoms to exposure to a confinement house atmosphere. In addition, misdiagnosis and subsequent treatment of confinement-related respiratory conditions as allergic responses are not uncommon; such treatment may provide symptomatic relief through bronchodilation, but is nonspecific and probably ineffective in the long run.
Table 3 Occupational Respiratory Conditions Associated with Swine Livestock Confinement--Diagnosis, Treatment, and Control
BRONCHITIS
Symptoms/History:
Cough, with sputum
production, possibly tightness of
chest.
Very frequently seen
among swine confinement workers;
somewhat less
often in poultry workers.
Smoking associated
with increased frequency and more
severe symptoms.
Symptoms continuing
for 2 or more years classified as
chronic bronchitis.
Work Exposure:
Usually occurs
in those who work in swine confinement for
2 or more hours
per day. More frequent and severe for
those who have
worked 6 or more years in confinement.
Generally occurs
in buildings with poor environment:
dusty (appears
hazy and dust accumulates on accumulates
on horizontal
surfaces) poor ventilation, often older
building (built
before 1975). Nursery buildings and
those with manure
pits under slatted floors may be
biggest offenders.
Usually worst during cold weather.
Diagnostic Aids:
Symptoms and history
usually sufficient for diagnosis.
PFT may show decreased
flow rates.
Skin tests or other
immunological tests not indicated.
Treatment/Control:
Protection from environment
most important action.
Medications usually
not indicated.
Antihistamines, decongestants,
antibiotics may provide
temporary relief
of symptoms but should not be used
long-term.
Improved ventilation
crucial.
Employ management
procedures to limit dust generation
(i.e. frequent
cleaning).
Install dust and gas
control technology.
Establish a respirator
program.
Abstain from smoking.
Prognosis:
Most improve if environmental
exposure is controlled
through engineering,
management, or use of respirator.
Cessation of
smoking also crucial.
Temporary removal
from the environment or use of a
respirator may
help until other measures can be taken.
Long-term or permanent
damage has not been reported to
date.
Usually not necessary
to quit working.
INCREASED AIRWAYS REACTIVITY
Symptoms/History:
Chest tightness, mild
dyspnea, some restriction and
obstruction
during breathing.
Often accompanied
by bronchitis.
Very common in exposed
workers.
History similar to
bronchitis, but often with a
nonproductive
cough.
Work Exposure:
Identical to bronchitis
(above).
Diagnostic Aids:
PFT following a workshift
shows flow decreased flow
rates, primarily
FEV, and FEV25-75.
Respiratory challenge
with methacholine or histamine show
decreased PFT
flow rates.
Treatment/Control:
Identical to bronchitis
(above).
Prognosis:
Identical to bronchitis
(above).
OCCUPATIONAL ASTHMA
Symptoms/History:
Wheezing within minutes
(immediate asthma) or for up to
24 hours (delayed
asthma) following exposure.
Only seen in small
percentage of workers (less than 10%).
Work Exposure:
þ Among atopics or
those who already have asthma from
another source,
often occurs with first exposure.
þ With other workers,
a period of sensitization is
required, which
may vary from a few months to several
years.
Extent of exposure
not as important (environment may be
relatively clean,
and a person may spend very small
amount of time
in building).
Diagnostic Aids:
Same as asthma from
any other source: obstructive air
flow patterns
following exposure; skin test often
positive to
one or more of feed grains, hog dander, hog
hair, various
molds, dusts; associated with atopic status
and increased
airways reactivity. Reversible with
bronchodilators.
Treatment/Control:
Medication and treatment
same as any asthmatic.
Attempts to control
exposures by environmental control
and respirators
may or may not be helpful.
Desensitization usually
not applicable because of
multiple antigens
and irritant gases.
Prognosis:
Same as for any asthmatic.
Depending on degree
of sensitivity, may be almost
impossible to
protect these people from their
environment.
This may be one condition
for which patient must quit
working in confinement
house.
Increased airway reactivity
and asthma may continue past
employment.
TOXIC ORGANIC DUST SYNDROME (TODS)
Symptoms/History:
þ Fever, muscle aches,
chest tightness, cough, malaise.
Symptoms develop 4-6
hours following exposure.
Self-limited symptoms
usually resolve 24-72 hours.
Recurrent episodes
common.
Seen in 10-15% of
the swine farming population.
Often observed in
clusters where 2-3 workers have similar
exposure.
Work Exposure:
Usually condition
associated with work in a totally
enclosed building.
Usually follows a
particularly heavy exposure (e.g. 4-6
hours of very
dusty work such as handling or sorting
hogs).
Diagnostic Aids:
Elevated white blood
cell count, usually neutrophilia.
PFT will show decreased
FEV, and diminished flow rates.
PO2 may be decreased.
Bronchoalveolar lavage
usually shows PMN response.
May show serum precipitins
to various molds or dust
extracts, but
these are not diagnostic.
X-ray may show scattered
patchy infiltrates.
Lung biopsy may show
inflammatory polymorphonuclear cell
infiltrates.
Treatment/Control:
þ Symptomatic treatment
in acute stages may include oxygen,
IV fluids to
correct acid-base imbalance and dehydration.
Aspirin may be used
to control fever.
Most cases do not
seek medical attention; often confused
with influenza.
Prognosis:
Usual recovery period
3-4 days, but patient may feel
tired and have
shortness of breath for several weeks.
Subsequent attacks
may occur in future following heavy
exposure.
H2S INTOXICATION
Symptoms/History:
Sudden and immediate
onset of nausea, dizziness, possibly
sudden collapse,
respiratory distress, apnea.
May lead to sudden
death or patient may recover if
removed from
environment, often with dyspnea, hemoptysis,
and pulmonary
edema, following intensive treatment.
Work Exposure:
þ Almost always occurs
with agitation of a liquid manure
pit while emptying
it.
þ Respiratory effects
will occur within seconds of
encountering
high concentration of H2S.
Diagnostic Aids:
If patient survives:
- x-ray often shows pulmonary edema.
- possibly presence
of sulfhemoglobin and sulfide in
blood.
If deceased: - autopsy
shows pulmonary edema, froth in
trachea, possibly
greenish tinge to viscera. - blood
contains sulfide
and sulfhemoglobin.
Treatment/Control:
Avoidance.
Remove exposed person
from environment (without exposing
others) and
resuscitate. May have to ventilate.
Seek medical care,
watch for and control pulmonary edema.
Prognosis:
If patient survives
initial exposure, will probably
recover usually
with minimal loss of lung function.
Recovery period
may be from days to 2-3 years, depending
on severity
of exposure.
Table 3 lists the primary respiratory conditions associated with confinement dusts and gases, including symptoms and signs, associated work exposure, and specific diagnostic aids. This table was developed from experience with swine confinement operations. Conditions provoked within other types of confinement buildings may differ.
Treatment
Medically, little can be prescribed excluding treatment of some of the acute illnesses (asthma, pulmonary edema from H2S intoxication). These treatments, specific control measures, and the prognosis for these illnesses are listed in Table 3.
Respiratory conditions must be controlled through protecting the patient from the environment, either by reducing dust and gas levels or by isolating the patient from these substances. A patient may need to get in touch with a consulting veterinarian or agricultural engineer who has knowledge of environmental control. The local veterinarian or the Cooperative Extension Service agricultural engineer should be able to recommend an appropriate expert.
Physicians need to address the patient's anxiety as well as the patient's medical problems. Confinement workers often are told to quit working in confinement structures if they are having respiratory problems. Usually this recommendation is unnecessary. It may produce extreme mental stress, and should only be given once the cause and prognosis of illness have been determined and other avenues of controlling harmful exposures have been fully explored. In many instances, the farmer has no reasonable occupational choice other than to continue working in the confinement building. Also, quitting farming is leaving a life-style as well as a job.
Farmers are becoming increasingly aware of confinement-associated respiratory conditions. A physician can explain potential long-term respiratory conditions but also instill confidence regarding maintenance of the farmer's health status, and assist in protecting the farmer from health problems of the work environment. Monitoring the patient's respiratory status may be reassuring to many patients. An initial exam should include a thorough occupational history, spirometry, and a chest x-ray if patients are symptomatic. These can be repeated if clinically indicated at later annual check-ups.
III. PREVENTION
Health hazards associated with confinement houses must be addressed through improvements in the environment and protection of the individual. Techniques for reducing or eliminating the sources of dusts and gases include delivering feed by extension spouts into covered feeders, rather than letting feed fall freely several feet from automatic delivery systems into open feeders (See Fig. 5), frequently and systematically washing buildings with power sprayers to keep them as clean as possible, using wire mesh floors which are more self-cleaning, and assuring that heating units are clean, vented, and functioning properly. Control techniques can be assessed by measuring dust and gas concentrations (see Unit 8).
Because it is impossible to eliminate the formation of dusts and gases, techniques for removing contaminants from the air of confinement houses are critically important. Ventilation will reduce gases, but not necessarily dusts, to healthful levels. Ventilation systems must be properly designed and maintained, and ventilation rates adjusted to include consideration of air quality. These rates often are kept low in winter because of concerns for conserving heat, causing dust and gas concentrations to rise. A number of engineering techniques (e.g. use of heat exchangers which allow increased ventilation while capturing some waste heat) have been tried with varying degrees of success.
Anyone working in a swine or poultry confinement house would be wise to wear a dust mask. Persons exposed to houses with high dust or gas concentrations, or persons with respiratory conditions, may need to use a more sophisticated respirator such as a half-mask cartridge respirator or air helmet. (See Unit 9)
Preventing exposure to high concentrations of H2S from manure pits requires stringent controls. General safety measures include constructing manure pits outside of the confinement building, constructing openings so that lids or other objects cannot fall into the pit requiring a worker to enter the pit for retrieval, and erecting safety guards and warning signs. Whenever a pit that is under a confinement house is being agitated, people should stay out of the building, ventilation of the house should be maximized, and animals should be removed or observed from outside the building.
Even when not being agitated, manure pits can seldom be entered safely.
If entrance is imperative, only a self-contained breathing apparatus, worn
by an individual trained in its use, will provide adequate protection.
All operators should understand that high concentrations of H2S cannot
be smelled and that H2S above 1000 ppm produces unconsciousness in only
one to three breaths.
The National Dairy Database (1992)\NDB\OCCSAFE\TEXT2\OF200700.TXT
TITLE;LIVESTOCK CONFINEMENT DUSTS AND GASES COLLECTION;FARM AND OPERATOR
SAFETY
ORIGIN;Iowa
DATE_INCLUDED;June 1992
....................................................................................................................................................................................
Beware of Manure Pit Hazards
Center for Michigan Agricultural Safety & Health
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs2/mi00700.html
Howard J. Doss, Howard L. Person and William McLeod
Since the increased use of manure pits by Michigan livestock producers, there have been several instances where a farmer, family member, or employee has asphyxiated or succumbed to toxic gases from the pit. Cases have been reported where several individuals have died while attempting to rescue a coworker or family member from a pit.
Nationwide data shows that most deaths occur during the summer months, a time when many producers are emptying pits. Regardless of the season, it is always best to presume that the pit contains hazardous gases or lacks oxygen. Producers need to take protective measures to protect themselves and others working in or around the pit.
The four main gases produced from decomposing manure are hydrogen sulfide,
methane, ammonia, and carbon dioxide. In high concentrations, each of these
gases may pose a health threat to humans and livestock (see Table 1). In
swine housing facilities, where the manure pit is often located below the
facility floor, these gases are generally detectable in low concentrations
throughout the year. When pits are agitated for pumping, some or all of
these gases are rapidly released from the manure a d may reach toxic levels
or displace oxygen, increasing the risk to humans and livestock.
________________________________
Table 1. Acute Effects of Swine Confinement Air Contaminants on
Humans*
Gas Exposure level Effect or symptom
Hydrogen Sulfide 5 ppm RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN HEALTH
10 ppm Eye irritation
20 ppm for >20 minutes Irritation to the eyes, nose and throat
50 to 100 ppm Vomiting, nausea, diarrhea
200 ppm Dizziness, nervous system depression, increased susceptibility
to pneumonia, fluid in the lungs with prolonged exposure
500 ppm for 30 minutes Nausea, excitement, unconsciousness
600 ppm and above Rapid death
Ammonia 5 ppm Lowest concentration detectable by smell.
7 ppm RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN HEALTH
6 - 20 ppm and above Eye irritation and respiratory problems
40 - 200 ppm Headache, nausea, reduced appetite, irritation to airways,
nose and throat
Carbon Monoxide 50 ppm RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN HEALTH
50 ppm for 8 hours Fatigue, headaches
500 ppm for 3 hours Chronic headaches, nausea and impaired mental ability
1,000 ppm for 1 hour Convulsions, coma after prolonged exposure
4,000 ppm and over Rapid death
Methane 50,000 to 150,000 ppm Potentially explosive
500,000 ppm Asphyxiation
Carbon Dioxide 1,500 ppm RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN HEALTH
20,000 ppm Deep, rapid breathing
40,000 to 60,000 ppm Heavy breathing, drowsiness, for 30 minutes and
headaches
100,000 ppm and above Narcotic effect, dizziness, unconsciousness
250,000 ppm and above Death
Dust 2.4 mg/cubic meter RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN HEALTH Cough
and increased phlegm (bronchitis), fewer episodes, chest tightness.
Endotoxin 0.08 micrograms/cubic meter RECOMMENDED MAXIMUM FOR HUMAN
HEALTH Decreased lung efficiency
0.1 micrograms/cubic meter Organic Dust Toxic Syndrome
* - Adapted from Baker J., Curtis S., Hogsett, O., et al ; Safety in
swine production systems, Pork Industry Handbook, publication PIH-104,
Cooperative Extension Service, Purdue University, West Lafayette, Indiana,
1986. Tables 1,2 and 3.
___________________________________________________
HYDROGEN SULFIDE
Hydrogen sulfide is considered the most dangerous gas in manure pits
because it is highly toxic and is rapidly released from decomposing manure
during agitation and pumping. Concentrations of hydrogen sulfide can soar
from 5 parts per million (ppm) to more than 500 ppm in seconds after agitation
begins.
Concentrations of hydrogen sulfide above 600 ppm can kill an individual
after taking only one or two breaths. The person falls immediately, apparently
unconscious and dies without moving again. A safe evacuation of the individual
can be made only if the rescuer is wearing a self-contained breathing apparatus
(SCBA). Generally, a rescuer has about six minutes to begin cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) before brain damage/death occurs. Unless the rescuer
is wearing SCBA protective equipmen (see section on personal protective
equipment), there is a strong likelihood that the rescuer will also succumb
to the toxic gases or lack of oxygen. There have been numerous instances
where several farmers have been killed while attempting to remove someone
from a pit or facility.
At lower concentrations, hydrogen sulfide can cause severe illness and irritate the entire respiratory track and eyes. Symptoms may include nausea, stomach distress, belching, coughing, headache, dizziness, irritation of the eyes and blistering of the lips.
It is a common belief among farmers that it is safe to enter a facility or pit if they cannot smell the putrid, rotten egg odor associated with hydrogen sulfide. This is not necessarily true because high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide paralyzes the nerve cells of the nose to the point where the person can no longer smell the gas.
Hydrogen sulfide, because it is heavier than air, accumulates above
the liquid level of the pit. Individuals may be quickly overcome with hydrogen
sulfide when working around a pit, whether it be climbing down a ladder
to make repairs or when leaning down to take a manure sample.
AMMONIA
Ammonia is easily recognized because of its pungent odor that is characteristic
of drying urine. This gas is released throughout the year from urine and
feces on the facility floor, or from a pit beneath the floor. Ammonia is
lighter than air and generally dissipates from a well-ventilated facility.
Concentrations ranging from 6 to 20 ppm and above will irritate the
eyes and throat. At higher concentrations, ammonia can irritate the respiratory
system and cause wheezing and shortness of breath. Concentrations above
2500 ppm are considered to be dangerous to human life, but individuals
are not likely to enter a facility with a concentration this high because
of the extremely strong odor.
METHANE
Methane is continuously produced in manure pits and released into the
air at a steady rate. A colorless, odorless, non-toxic gas that is lighter
than air, methane generally dissipates from a confinement building. The
primary danger of methane accumulation in a facility is the risk of a fiery
explosion from a spark if the methane/oxygen mix is in proper proportions.
The risk of fire is greater in a poorly-ventilated structure.
Although non-toxic to humans and livestock, methane can cause asphyxiation
if it displaces the oxygen in a closed facility.
CARBON DIOXIDE
Carbon dioxide is produced by decomposing manure, animal respiration
and heating fuels. An odorless, colorless, non-toxic gas, carbon dioxide
is normally present at 300 ppm in the air. Concentrations rise when ventilation
systems are inadequate or functioning improperly, This may result in oxygen
being displaced in the facility with carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide, in
combination with rising temperatures and humidity, can kill hogs through
asphyxiation and heat stress if ventilation failure last for several hours.
PROTECTION DURING PIT ENTRY
Pits are unpredictable, they may have been safe to work around for
years, but suddenly, factors such as the stage of manure decomposition,
wind conditions, or other components are just right (or in this case, wrong)
for the pit to release deadly concentrations of toxic gases. Always treat
a pit as if it is a death trap and take necessary precautions to protect
yourself and others if entry is necessary.
SCBA
If you must enter a manure pit where gases are suspected, a self-contained
breathing apparatus (SCBA) must be worn along with a safety harness and
preferable two persons available to assist in a rescue.
A self-contained breathing apparatus supplies the wearer with 15 to
30 minutes of safe air to breath. A SCBA system, similar to those worn
by firefighters, has a small air tank and facemask that allows the person
to move about freely in an area where toxic gases or insufficient oxygen
is suspected.
There are restrictions to wearing a SCBA that should be considered before purchasing the equipment. Training on the use of a SCBA is essential to ensure proper use. The facemask must fit properly or toxic gases may enter the mask. The wearer cannot have a beard because the facemask will not seal properly around the face. Your local fire department is the best source for information and training on its use. The cost of a SCBA is about $1,700.
Due to the equipment requirements and inherent risks associated with
entering an area where there may be toxic gases or insufficient oxygen,
you should consider hiring a professional trained in working in these areas
to perform maintenance tasks. If hiring a professional or using a SCBA
is not possible, the best advice is to stay out of the pit.
Meters and Ventilation
An alternative to wearing a SCBA is to check gas and oxygen levels
of a facility or manure pit with a gas and oxygen testing meter before
entering (see Table 2 for types of meters and gases that they can detect).
________________________________________
Table 2. Gas Measuring Devices Useful in Confinement Buildings
Gas Situations* Detector Tubes Dosimeter Tubes
Solid state Detectors
Ammonia routine measurements satisfactory preferred Not reliable
Hydrogen Sulfide routine measurements preferred satisfactory satisfactory
emergency situations satisfactory too slow preferred**
Carbon Monoxide routine measurements preferred satisfactory satisfactory
emergency situations preferred too slow preferred
Carbon Dioxide routine measurements satisfactory satisfactory satisfactory
emergency situations preferred too slow satisfactory
Methane flammable levels preferred not available satisfactory
* - Routine is defined as typical daily average concentrations. Emergency
is defined as any non-routine situations such as pit pump-out, ventilation
or electrical failure, observation of abnormal swine behavior, or unusual
respiratory symptoms in persons entering buildings which may indicate gas
concentrations immediately hazardous to human health.
** - Solid state detectors are preferred here because of the speed
or response and because they provide continuous information on hydrogen
sulfide concentrations.
__________________________________________
Metering can also present problems if not done properly. Toxic gas concentrations may vary throughout the area; higher levels may be detected in dead air spaces where ventilation is inadequate; lower levels are likely in areas near open windows and mechanically ventilated areas. It should also be noted that gas levels can rapidly escalate during agitation and pumping; meter readings that were at safe levels before these activities may reach hazardous levels in a few minutes. Continue to ve tilate the area throughout the entire process. Table 3 gives instructions on how to measure some gases in emergency situations.
The three basic types of meters are detector tube, dosimeter tube and
solid state detectors. Detector and dosimeter tubes use inexpensive gas
sampling devices that give reliable readings for ammonia, hydrogen sulfide,
carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or other gases found on the farm. Dosimeters
are best for measuring average concentrations; detector tubes do the best
job of measuring instantaneous concentrations during emergency situations.
Solid state detectors give continuous readings and have audible alarm systems,
but are more expensive than tube type detectors and must be calibrated
frequently.
Additional Equipment
Anyone entering a pit should be equipped with an approved harness and
a rescue rope attached to a tripod and pulley system. Two people can remove
an unconscious individual from a pit in a few seconds with this type of
a emergency lift. Remember, you have only six minutes to begin cardiopulmonary
resuscitation (CPR) before brain damage/death occurs.
______________________________________
Table 3. How to Measure Hydrogen Sulfide*, Carbon Monoxide, and
Carbon Dioxide During Emergency Situations**
1. Do not enter the building. Open widows and doors from the outside, turn on ventilators, and use any fans available to blow air into the facility.
2. Use a detector tube with an extension hose to avoid the possibility of breathing highly toxic air. The detector tube must be specific for the gas to be measured (carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, or hydrogen sulfide). While reaching through a window or other opening, place the detector tube near floor level and use the vacuum pump to draw air into the tube. Remove the detector tube and read the gas concentration.
3. If measurement is low, borderline, or hard to read, take additional measurements in different areas of the building. One measurement may be inadequate to detect high gas concentrations.
* - Note that monitoring hydrogen sulfide concentrations is recommended
whenever a deep pit underneath a building is being pumped, even if there
are no indications of toxic gases.
** - Emergency is defined as any non-routine situation such as pit
pump-out, ventilation or electrical failure, malfunction of fossil fuel-burning
heaters, observation of abnormal swine behavior or death, or unusual respiratory
symptoms of persons entering the buildings. These symptoms may indicate
gas concentrations immediately hazardous to human health.
__________________________________
Unsafe Alternatives
The cost of a self-contained breathing apparatus, metering, and approved
equipment to lift an unconscious individual from a pit may lead you to
consider less costly alternatives. Unfortunately, all these alternatives
have substantial safety risks.
Lowering an open flame into a pit to check oxygen levels may result in an explosion from accumulation of methane gas. Also, this only tells you that there is at least 16 percent oxygen in the pit, but research shows that most individuals need 19.5 percent oxygen concentrations to live. Normal air contains about 21 percent oxygen.
An alternative to an approved harness and safety lift may be to tie
a rope around the individual entering the pit. This may work, but there
is a substantial risk of breaking a rib and puncturing a lung while making
a rescue.
Do not Enter any Confined Manure Pits Without Either:
A self-contained air supply like those fire fighters use. (Dust masks or other cartridge respirators will not filter out the toxic gases nor will they provide the oxygen requirement to work in confined spaces such as manure pits.)
OR
Testing the air for hydrogen sulfide, combustible gases or methane, and oxygen with dependable and reliable equipment, AND
Constant and adequate ventilation of fresh air, AND
An approved harness/lifeline on the person entering the pit with at least two people outside the pit who are capable of pulling the person out of the pit if necessary, AND
An approved pulley and tripod or other suitably strong lifting system
that will make it possible to remove a limp body from the pit.
Remember, you have only six minutes after a person stops breathing
to begin mouth-to-mouth resuscitation before brain damage/death occurs.
Being prepared will greatly reduce the risk of panic, ill adverse action,
and needless death or injury.
Reducing Hazards from Manure Gases
Fence around pits to keep children and other nonworkers away from the pit. Keep gates locked to prevent anyone else from entering the area.
Provide mechanical ventilation in closed buildings to provide as much ventilation as possible during pit agitation. Turn all fans on during agitation and throughout the entire pump-out period. This is the time of greatest danger and when most deaths and injuries occur.
Keep workers away from the pit and out of the building during and immediately after agitation. Move animals out of the building if possible.
Post warning signs at common potential entry points of confined spaces where hazardous gas concentrations could occur.
Warning decals are available from the Michigan Department of Labor-S.E.T. Division, P.O. Box 30015, 7150 Harris Dr., Lansing, MI 48909. (Ask for SET #2054 confined space decal sign.)
Thoroughly ventilate and continue ventilation while working around a pit. Have a second person standing by before attempting to enter a building to rescue an animal or coworker. If thorough ventilation is not immediately possible, a self-contained breathing apparatus should be worn. Failure to use this equipment could result in death or serious health impairment of the rescuer.
Consider installing railings on all walkways and permanent ladders on the inside wall of the tank. Construct lids or tops on all ground level pits, or fence around them where possible.
If possible, remove clogged or damaged pumps from the tank to make repairs instead of entering the pit. Remind children, visitors and any non-essential workers to stay away from manure pits and transfer/holding tanks, especially during agitation and pumping. Do not allow people to enter livestock buildings during agitation and pumping of manure pits under the building floor.
WHEN TO CONSULT A PHYSICIAN
Livestock confinement operators should consult a physician whenever
they experience one or more of the following symptoms:
Persistent cough, especially a cough accompanied by large amounts of phlegm, shortness of breath, or a feeling of chest tightness.
Wheezing, chest tightness, or shortness of breath which develops while working in a confinement building.
Episodes of flu-like illness with fever, headache, muscle aches, cough, chest tightness, and shortness of breath that develops several hours after entering the confinement building.
Excessive and persistent shortness of breath at any time.
Excessive fatigue or intolerance to exercise.
Any respiratory symptoms following a known exposure to high concentrations of gas associated with pit agitation.
Livestock confinement operators should also consider having a yearly physical examination which will enable the physician to examine the patientþs respiratory condition and compare any changes in lung function from year to year.
REFERENCES
Swine Confinement and Respiratory Health, University of Iowa, Institute of Agricultural Health and Occupational Medicine, 1989.
Hazardous Gases in Manure Tanks in Livestock Operations, 1989, Michigan State University, Agricultural Engineering Information Series, AEIS #573.
Michigan State University, Agricultural Engineering Department.
Howard J. Doss, Extension Agricultural Safety Specialist; Howard L. Person, Extension Agricultural Engineer; and William McLeod, Agricultural Engineering, Michigan State University Extension, East Lansing, Michigan 48824. 5/93. Funded by the National Institute of Occupational Safety and Health - #UO5/CC-4506052-02.
This information is for educational purposes only. Reference to commercial products or trade names does not imply endorsement by the MSU Extension or bias against those not mentioned.
......................................................................................................................................................................................
Subject: Hydrogen Sulfide and its Health Effects - from oil to hog
farms
Most of the reportedly measured sulfur compounds are assumed to hydrogen
sulfide gas with some mercaptans and carbon dissulfide (CS2) in lower concentrations.
Therefore comments will address the effects of
hydrogen sulfide (H2S).
The state of Texas since the 30-minute ground level property line standard is 80 ppb, which is too high in my opinion. Therefore a 24-hour H2S level of 108 ppb represents 48 violations of the 30-minute Texas standard.
HYDROGEN SULFIDE'S HUMAN HEALTH EFFECTS ARE WELL KNOWN INCLUDING AS
A
NEUROTOXIN IN THE LOW PART PER BILLION RANGE OF ROUTINE EXPOSURE
General information about the toxicity of hydrogen sulfide (cites listed at end)
Hydrogen sulfide is similar to cyanide in toxicity. It interferes with
the enzyme cytochrome oxidase, which is necessary for cells to make use
of oxygen (1, 2). How does H2S enter the body? There are three routes:
inhalation-from breathing vapors absorbed through the lungs; oral-from
ingestion of contaminated substances (especially water), absorbed through
the intestinal tract; and skin-from contact with contaminated substances
(such as air), absorbed through the skin. The main route of absorption
of H2S is through inhalation.
Animal studies of H2S show widespread distribution in the body after
inhalation exposures (3, 4), with a selective distribution to the brain
stem compared with other areas of the brain (5). Research in animals has
identified more than forty health effects of H2S. Data demonstrates
that numerous similar health effects occur in human exposure to H2S. Metabolism
takes place by three pathways: oxidation to sulfate, methylation, and
reaction with metallo- or disulfide- containing proteins. This last
appears to be the main pathway for toxicity (6).
Human populations most sensitive to H2S are assumed to be the fetus (animal data only), children (7), persons with heart disease (8), individuals with asthma (9), individuals who metabolize organosulfides differently (10, 11, as reviewed in 12), and persons consuming alcohol (13, 14).
Medical information about H2S toxicity and chronic exposure at low level concentrations Hydrogen sulfide's toxicity at the 800-1,000 parts per million level (and higher) is well documented as being instantaneously lethal to exposed human beings. Hydrogen sulfide works by rapidly interfering with the brain's respiratory command center (sending nerve signals to the lungs) and poisoning the blood's oxygen carrying ability, but long-term, low-level or chronic exposures have been generally considered to be less toxic and less harmful.
The driving regulatory assumption has been that if an exposure to H2S
is not fatal, there are few, if any, lasting health effects. But that assumption
is medically outdated. Four public health scientists-including Kaye Kilburn,
Ph.D., University of Southern California School of Medicine, and Marvin
Legator, Ph.D., University of Texas Medical Branch-Galveston-participated
on an H2S panel at the American Public Health Association's annual meetings
November 11, 1997, in Indianapolis, Indiana, to present and discuss groundbreaking
research demonstrating the extraordinarily toxic nature of H2S at the chronic,
low levels to which communities across the nation are routinely exposed.
These public health findings support the thesis that exposure to hydrogen
sulfide, even in extremely low concentrations, can cause lasting damage
to the nervous system.
Dr. Kilburn has been conducting research on the health effects of exposure
to H2S for many years (18, 19, 20). Describing a new study, he unequivocally
stated at the conference that "H2S poisons the brain, and the
poisoning is irreversible" (21, 23). Demonstrable symptoms of chronic
exposure include pronounced deficits in balance and reaction time, as well
as such ailments as dizziness, insomnia, and overpowering fatigue.
Dr. Legator and his research associate Chantele Singleton have been using a carefully designed "symptom survey" to evaluate adverse health effects associated with H2S (1, 21). In one study, they administered the survey to 97 residents living within four miles of a large geothermal electric power plant in Hawaii, the Puna Geothermal Venture (PGV). PGV produces electricity from subsurface volcanic heat and releases hydrogen sulfide as a waste byproduct. Eighty-six percent of the subjects indicated that they had experienced central nervous system impairment of the sort described by Dr. Kilburn's research. But only 26% of those in a control group-people who live some 20 miles away from the plant-reported such problems (1, 21, 22).
According to the several studies of these researchers, in chronic, low level exposures, one may observe abnormal neurobehavioral functioning and altered mood states (e.g., depression, fatigue, tension, vigor) (1). In addition, numerous CNS-brain effects occur including: changes in brain density, headache, memory loss, reduced sense of smell, loss of balance, dizziness, sleep difficulties, and fatigue (1). Numerous cases reported in the literature support the CNS toxicity of H2S (1). Many of the effects are persistent (15, 16, 17).
Children's exposure to hydrogen sulfide
Children are more vulnerable than adults to H2S, first because they
breathe more rapidly, taking in significantly more pollution per pound
of body weight than do adults. A resting infant, for example, inhales twice
as much
air, relative to its size, as does a resting adult. Second, national
data show that children spend an average of about 50% more time outdoors
than adults. Third, children are three times more active while outdoors
than
adults, engaged in sports and other vigorous activities; this increased
activity raises breathing rates and significantly increases inhalation
and in some cases swallowing of pollutants. Fourth, children are particularly
vulnerable to toxic substances because their bodies are immature and
rapidly growing. Fifth, children are in their prime learning years and
H2S exposure causes brain damage. The impairment of mental faculties in
a child amounts to a lifetime of harm.
Diurnal variation measured in hydrogen sulfide concentrations
Researchers have confirmed what citizens in impacted communities have known for years: The odor of H2S in neighborhoods is significantly worse at night (24). Tarver and Dasgupta conducted field studies on variation in H2S from day to night. They observed:
At all locations, H2S concentrations consistently exhibited a strong diurnal pattern, with nighttime maxima in the range of 1-5 ppbv followed by rapid abatement at sunrise. By 10-11 AM, H2S levels fell below the instrument detection limit of 200 pptv (24).
Like other polluting gases, H2S generally does not disperse as efficiently
at night, with its cooler air temperatures. For residents in impacted communities,
this diurnal pattern carries the implication that by far the
worst H2S exposures are occurring when families are most likely to
be at home and windows may be open (often because many houses in low-income
communities lack air conditioning). Night also tends to be the time when
state and local regulatory agencies are least likely to be available to
verify nuisance conditions, conduct H2S ambient air sampling, and attempt
to track down the H2S source in efforts to obtain compliance.
Public health scientists now recognize that hydrogen sulfide is a potent
neurotoxin, and that chronic exposure to even low ambient levels causes
irreversible damage to the brain and central nervous system. Children are
among the most susceptible to this poison gas. It is unacceptable for
communities to have to continue suffering the ill effects of H2S when the
technology to control H2S emissions is available and affordable.
REFERENCES
1. Morris, DL, and MS Legator: Hydrogen Sulfide, October 1996, privately
circulated draft presentation.
2. Smith, RP, and RE Gosselin: 1979, J Occupational Medicine 21:93-7.
3. Nagata, T, et al: 1990, J Forensic Science 35:706-12.
4. Voight, GE, and P Muller: 1955, Acta Histochem 1:223-39, as reviewed
by Beauchamp, RP Jr, et al: 1984,
CRC Crit Rev Toxicol 13:25-96.
5. Warenycia. MW, et al: 1989, Biochem Pharm 38:973-81.
6. Beauchamp, RP Jr, et al: op cit.
7. Dales, RE, et al: 1989, Am Rev Respir Dis 139:595-600.
8. Jappinen, P, and S Tola: 1990, Br J Ind Med 47:259-62.
9. Jappinen, P, et al: 1990, Br J Ind Med 47:824-8.
10. Mitchell, SC, et al: 1984, Br J Clin Pharm 18:507-21.
11. Harris, CM, et al: 1986, Lancet 1:492-3.
12. Guidotti, TL: 1994, Int Arch Occup Env Health 66:153-60.
13. Beck, JF, et al: 1979, Toxicol Lett 3:311-13.
14. Poda, G,and SC Aiken: 1966, Arch Env Health 12:795-800.
15. Wasch, et al: 1989, Arch Neurol 46:902-4.
16. Tvedt, B, et al: 1991, Acta Neurol Scand 84:348-51.
17. Tvedt, B, et al: 1991, Am J Ind Med 20:91-101.
18. Killburn, KH: 1997, Panel on Hydrogen Sulfide, American Public
Health Association's annual meetings,
November 11, 1997, Indianapolis, Indiana.
19. Kilburn, KH,:1993, Am J Med Sci 306:301-5.
20. Kilburn, KH, and RH Warshaw: 1995, Tox Ind Health 11:185-96.
21. Legator, MS, and C Singleton: 1997: Panel on Hydrogen Sulfide,
American Public Health Association's
annual meetings, Indianapolis, Indiana.
22. Morris, J: New alarm over hydrogen sulfide-Researchers document
lasting damage to human nervous
system. A three-part investigative report,
Houston Chronicle, November 1997. See archives of the Houston,
Texas Chronicle newspaper at http://www.chron.com
23. Borda, B: 1997, Panel on Hydrogen Sulfide, American Public Health
Association's annual meetings,
Indianapolis, Indiana.
24. Tarver, GA, and PK Dasgupta: 1997, Environ Sci Tech 31:3669-3676.
NEIL J. CARMAN, PH.D.
Clean Air Program director
Lone Star Chapter of Sierra Club, and
Technical Advisor to the Galveston-Houston Association for Smog Prevention
Sierra Club's Genetic Engineering Committee:
http://www.sierraclub.org/biotech
54 Chicon street
Austin, Texas 78702-5431
512-472-1767 Phone
512-477-8526 Fax
Email: Neil_Carman@greenbuilder.com
......................................................................................................................................................................................
Take safety precautions when entering manure pits. It is easy to be overcome by the gases coming from the pit. Never enter a manure pit or spreader tank alone. Wear an air-supplying respirator that you have been trained to use and maintain. Also wear a safety harness and lifeline connected to a stationary object outside the pit with at least two people ready to pull you out.
When someone collapses in a pit, gases are so concentrated that it is suicidal for anyone else to enter without a self-contained breathing apparatus. The only reasonable immediate action is to ventilate the storage area and notify rescue personnel who can bring the proper equipment. Barn fans and silo blowers may be activated to provide ventilation, but do not lower fans into the pit because this could cause methane explosion.
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/docs3/me97029.html
........................................................................................................................................................................................
Acute Toxic Exposure to Gases From Liquid Manure
Kelley J. Donham, L. W. Knapp, Russell Monson, Kim Gustafson
AUTHOR ABSTRACT
Liquid manure storage is a common component of confinement systems
for swine, beef, dairy, and veal operations. A mail questionnaire to a
sample of swine producers indicated that more than 85,000 people in Iowa
and an estimated 500,000 in the United States work in livestock confinement
systems that use liquid manure storage. Deaths and illnesses in people
with acute exposure to toxic gases emanating from the liquid manure have
been recently reported. This communication reports results of th investigation
of six such incidents. Hydrogen sulfide appears to be the main toxic substance
involved, and agitation of the liquid manure is important in creating an
acutely severely toxic environment. Preventative measures must include
worker education and limitation of human exposure through control of environmental
and human factors.
JOURNAL AND NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE ID#
JOURNAL: J Occup Med. 1982; 24(2): 142-145.
Note: Journal of Occupational Medicine.
NLOM ID#: 82121933.
http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/nasd/niosh/ni13700.html
......................................................................................................................................................................................
Countryside & Small Stock Journal
Vol. 84 No. 1, January/February, 2000, page 73
A discussion of the science linking sewer pipes and hog confinement buildings
We have taken a system used to transport raw sewage and inappropriately adopted it to raise meat for human consumption.
...A sample from these studies will show they are concerned with some of the same gases and resulting diseases as are found in the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) regulations concerning hydrogen sulfide and ammonia. From the confinement studies:
"Approximately 60% of swine production workers complain of at least one respiratory symptom, most of which are acute symptoms. Among this group of workers with respiratory symptoms, approximately 30% also experience chronic bronchitis, 3 0 % have reactive airway disease and 30% experience episodes of organic dust toxic syndrome. These conditions can be directly attributable to exposure to aerosolized dust and its biologically active constituents (endotoxin, allergens) in addition to gases such as ammonia and hydrogen sulfide."
"Compared to control populations of urban workers and crop farmers, workers in enclosed livestock environments have a higher prevalence of respiratory symptoms such as cough, phlegm, wheezing and dyspnea. Confinement workers also exhibit decreased pulmonary function indicative of both chronic and acute effects (Boyer, 1974; Thelin, 1984; Stahuliak-Berinc, 1977; Brouwer, 1986; Holness, 1987; Donham, 1989; Reynolds, 1993; Donham, 1984; Muller, 1986; Petro, 1978).
" Pigs are affected by these gases the same as people. The original OSHA limits for humans in part were established, ironically, from studies on pigs. From the Federal OSHA Rules and Regulations:
The ACGIH (1986/Ex. 1-3) believes that an eight-hour TWA limit is necessary for ammonia because a study by Stombaugh, Teague, and Roller (1960/Ex. 1-29) reports that pigs exposed continuously to 103 to 145 ppm ammonia reduced their consumption of food and lost weight. The ACGIH interprets this study to mean that systemic toxicity occurs as a result of chronic exposure to ammonia. However, OSHA interprets this study differently, believing instead that it shows a secondary effect of the irritation traditionally associated with ammonia exposure. That is, in OSHA's view, these pigs stopped eating because they were experiencing too much respiratory and eye irritation to be interested in food.
The more recent studies on humans indicate adverse effects from ammonia at concentrations as low as 7 ppm.
Now, from the OSHA studies on hydrogen sulfide (which the Minnesota Pollution Control Association has measured at 30 times the federal limit at confinement sites):
"Summary of toxicology: Hydrogen sulfide gas is a rapidly acting systemic poison which causes respiratory paralysis with consequent asphyxia at high concentrations. It irritates the eyes and respiratory tract at low concentrations. Inhalation of high concentrations of hydrogen sulfide (1,000 to 2,000 ppm) may cause coma after a single breath and may be rapidly fatal; convulsions may also occur. Exposure to concentrations of hydrogen sulfide above 50 ppm. for one hour may produce acute conjunctivitis with pain, lacrimation and photophobia; in severe form this may progress to keratoconjunctivitis and vesiculation of the corneal epithelium. In low concentrations, hydrogen sulfide may cause headache, fatigue, irritability, insomnia and gastrointestinal disturbances; in somewhat higher concen,trations it affects the central nervous system, causing excitement and dizziness. Prolonged exposure to 250 ppm of hydrogen sulfide may cause pulmonary edema. Prolonged exposure to hydrogen sulfide results in increased susceptibility, so that eye irritation, cough, and systemic effects may result from concentrations previously tolerated without any effect. Rapid olfactory fatigue can occur at high concentrations."
And the OSHA ammonia studies:
"Summary of toxicology: Ammonia vapor is a severe irritant of the eyes, especially the cornea, the respiratory tract and skin. Inhalation of concentrations of 2,500 to 6,500 ppm causes dyspnea, bronchospasm, chest pain and pulmonary edema which may be fatal; production of pink. frothy sputum often occurs. Consequences can include bronchitis or pneumonia; some residual reduction in pulmonary function has been reported. In a human experimental study which exposed 10 subjects to various vapor concentrations for five minutes, 134 ppm caused irritation of the eyes, nose and throat in most subjects and one person complained of chest irritation; at 72 ppm several reported the same symptoms; at 50 ppm, two reported nasal dryness and at 32 ppm only one reported nasal dryness."
In effect, the diseases and dangers are the same in sewers and confinements, which you would expect because the gases and sewage and closed environment are the same.
Read the full article sewer
pipes and hog confinement buildings
........................................................................................................................................................................................
Studies Indicate Hog Farms Hazardous to Health Dec/29/1998
EarthVision Reports http://www.gnet.org
OMAHA, NE, December 29, 1998 -- Researchers at the University of
Iowa recently found an unusually high rate of respiratory
problems among people who live near hog farms. The Omaha
World-Herald reported that the symptoms in Iowa are similar to
those documented among hog confinement workers over the past two
decades in some two dozen studies worldwide. According to the
article, at least 19 people have died in accidents involving
hydrogen sulfide releases in manure pits. However, scientists
have yet to uncover which of the 200 or so compounds produced by
hog manure are causing the respiratory ailments. In the United
States, there are no federal standards or regulations for many
of the compounds associated with the hog odors when they are
outside, including the toxic gases hydrogen sulfide and ammonia.
Both gases however, are regulated indoors under Occupational
Health and Safety Administration rules intended to protect
workers, according to the article.
http://www.earthsystems.org/list/envst-l/0084.html
...........................................................................................................................................................................................
02/14/00- Updated 07:48 AM ET
Stench chokes Neb. meatpacking towns
By Elliot Blair Smith, USA TODAY
IBP responds to federal suit
LEXINGTON, Neb. -- White clapboard houses, faded and peeling, paint a ghostly outline of this small town on the Great Plains where the world's largest meatpacker, IBP, kills one head of cattle every 11 seconds.
Originally known as Iowa Beef Packers, IBP today employs about one-quarter of Lexington's population -- 2,300 workers -- and exports prime beef worldwide. But the stench of burning blood, bristle and bone lingers in the western Nebraska air.
And the vast skyline once limned by green haze from the town's abandoned alfalfa mill is tainted now by an invisible toxic cloud that burns residents' throats and leaves a bitter taste on their lips.
Some Lexington parents say they keep their children inside on days when the odor is unbearable. Elderly residents can be seen pulling tanks of oxygen as they amble through Wal-Mart. One farmer, on land near IBP's waste lagoon, talks of doubling over to vomit because of the stench.
"It's a dead, heavy, nauseating smell. It makes you sick to your stomach," says Bertha "Tootie" Carroll, who lives on a farm 1 1/2 miles southeast of the IBP plant.
"It smells like money," responds Tim Shively of BHA Real Estate, repeating a shopworn joke on Main Street.
Nebraska officials say the chemical component of Lexington's putrid air is hydrogen sulfide, a byproduct of organic decay in cattle-feed lots, the city sewer system and IBP's slaughterhouse. Hydrogen sulfide corrodes the lungs and starves the brain of oxygen required to process new information and recall the past, experts say.
The state says it can't pinpoint IBP as the primary source of hydrogen sulfide, whose toxicity first was identified in the deaths of mid-19th century sewer workers in Paris and London. And IBP doesn't admit responsibility, though it plans to spend $3 million to cover a waste lagoon at the edge of town.
But in another Nebraska town where IBP does business, the federal government is taking action in a lawsuit prosecutors say could affect IBP plants throughout the Great Plains. On Jan. 12, the Justice Department filed a lawsuit accusing IBP of violating federal air, water and hazardous waste laws at the company's flagship plant and former headquarters in Dakota City.
The Justice Department, acting on behalf of the Environmental Protection Agency, alleges IBP emitted up to 1,800 pounds of hydrogen sulfide a day in Dakota City without notifying federal regulators. Disclosure is required for hydrogen sulfide emissions greater than 100 pounds a day, the government says.
The lawsuit also alleges that IBP exceeded the federal Clean Water Act by dumping excessive ammonia into the Missouri River since at least 1988.
The Justice Department says it intervened after state officials failed to stem the company's tide of environmental abuses.
"This case presents a pattern of activity for which the common thread is IBP's avoidance of environmental regulations," says U.S. Attorney Thomas Monaghan. "We will hold them accountable."
IBP denies the charges. In response to questions from USA TODAY, IBP spokesman Gary Mickelson said the Justice Department cannot prove IBP's hydrogen sulfide emissions were excessive.
"During the period in question," Mickelson said, "IBP was not required to measure air emissions from ... non-specific, non-point sources such as lagoons and manhole covers within its operations. Without such data, it was impossible to know if any air-quality exceedances were taking place."
Mickelson added: "The ammonia levels in the treated water we release into the river do not cause an adverse environmental impact."
In an interview with USA TODAY in September, IBP CEO Robert Peterson said: "We have no intention of harming the environment. We have every intention of living within the rules." And IBP told the Securities and Exchange Commission in a March 1999 filing that it was in "substantial compliance" with local, state and federal environmental laws.
But regulatory records reviewed by USA TODAY show the EPA repeatedly warned IBP from September 1998 to January 1999 that it violated federal air, land and water laws in Nebraska.
More broadly, court records and regulatory filings reviewed under Public Records Act requests in several states outline a 20-year history of alleged environmental misconduct by IBP:
Idaho. State Division of Environmental Quality records show that IBP's meatpacking plant near Boise exceeded regulatory wastewater guidelines by up to 1,200%, and the plant's use of nitrogen waste as fertilizer exceeded regulatory guidelines by up to 500% before the company negotiated broader waste limits and improved treatment systems in December 1998.
IBP's Mickelson says, "Exceeding these guidelines is not a violation of the law or our permit, nor were we ever cited by the (state)."
State officials say IBP did violate the company's permit, in part by failing to monitor local groundwater for nitrate-waste poisoning. Idaho officials also say IBP wastewater, aerated by sprinklers, contained massive amounts of potentially disease-carrying fecal matter.
Idaho regulators considered imposing a consent order on IBP, according to a December 1998 internal report that cited "several unresolved compliance issues." Instead, the state agreed to issue IBP a new environmental permit that accommodates the company's production requirements with added operating safeguards and enforcement provisions.
Illinois. The state attorney general seeks to fine IBP up to $10,000 a day for six years for alleged violations of the state's odor law at the company's Joslin plant. Illinois residents' complaints of irritated throats, nausea and difficulty breathing parallel hydrogen sulfide-related concerns in Nebraska. IBP is contesting the regulatory action in court.
Nebraska. After the EPA began inquiring about hydrogen sulfide emissions, IBP recalculated its 1994, 1995 and 1996 state air records, and, in June 1998, submitted corrected data "along with its appropriate fees," regulatory records show.
In addition, the Justice Department says, IBP incorrectly filed or failed to file federal toxic-air reports at several plants in Iowa, Nebraska and Kansas, where the company already is one of the regions' largest polluters and has been cited for several environmental failings, EPA records show.
IBP comes to town
Two dozen empty storefronts lined Main Street when IBP opened its Lexington slaughterhouse in November 1990.
Shop owners parked in front of surviving businesses to lend the appearance of prosperity. Some homeowners, unable to pay their mortgages, greeted bank officials with their keys and walked away.
IBP officials arrived as heroes who would resuscitate the downtrodden local farm economy. During a town hall meeting, IBP Vice President Troy Calhoun soothed residents' environmental concerns by saying, "Odor does not have to be objectionable either to people within our plant (or in) the environment in which they work."
Calhoun described slaughter waste as smelling like "rotten wood. It is a wet, musty, I often use the term 'sweet,' pervasive odor."
Each year since moving to town, the company increased beef production and employment. It now contributes $58 million to the local economy.
But most farm families who accepted jobs at IBP didn't stay long. It is hard, dangerous work at pay that starts slightly above the minimum wage.
Soon, busloads of workers from California, Texas, Mexico and Guatemala rolled into town. The demographic shift galvanized major changes in Lexington neighborhoods and schools.
Meanwhile, Lexington developed one of the highest crime rates in Nebraska. Last year, Lexington police recorded an arrest rat