As an instructor of social psychology, I am often asked by students, “how can we rid the world of social problems such as violence, aggression, conflict, prejudice, and discrimination.” Unfortunately, the field of psychology does not have clear-cut answers to prevention, but instead creates theories for understanding how these problems arise and the nature to which these conditions exist. Most of these problems are very complex and entail a diversity of factors, which makes prevention by one simple method almost impossible. This article will present three approaches in which the current theories on violence are characterized and the methods utilized to prevent violence. An emphasis will be placed on the social skills training advocated by the Society for the Prevention of Violence as a means of reducing violent behaviors through education.
The first category of theories is known as the biological approach. There have been several research projects that suggest that violence comes because of the biological make-up of the individual. For example, violent animals and people have shown abnormal structures in the limbic system and prefrontal cortex of the brain. One study surgically implanted an electrode in the amygdala and hypothalamus, structures believed to be involved with aggression located in the limbic system, of cats. When the electrode was stimulated, the cat tried to kill another cat located in the same cage. When the stimulation was turned off, the cat went back to a docile state. Although it would be impossible to replicate this same study in humans, a connection has been found between abnormal brain structures in the limbic system and prison inmates doing time for violent crimes. Furthermore, there is some evidence that genetics and biochemical changes to the bloodstream can either increase or decrease the aggression response. Chemicals such as the neurotransmitter serotonin, the hormone testosterone, and introduced substances like alcohol, have all been linked to increases of aggression in both animals and humans. Although not all cases of violence can be explained from the biological approach, it is important to understand that biology might play a part in violent behavior. Prevention from this approach might range from medications that inhibit these neurotransmitters, hormones and chemicals, to surgery to repair any damaged structures in the brain. Social skills training would probably be ineffective for violence that has a biological basis.
The second set of theories is known as the frustration-aggression approach, which takes into account emotions and the associated thought process that accompanies the emotions. Simply put, people become aggressive and violent because they are frustrated over being blocked from some type of goal. If a person wants to obtain happiness, but feels that something or someone is blocking their path, then that person will lash out. The target of the aggression does not have to be the person or thing blocking the goal. It is possible that a person who is upset at their employer for not paying them what they are worth, could “take it out” on family members or other people. This might be the basis for much of the domestic violence seen in our society. The family members might be easy targets for the frustration caused by something or someone who the aggressor cannot lash out toward.
It used to be thought that anyone who was frustrated would automatically become violent. More recently, it has been found that frustration leads to an emotional readiness to become violent; however, not everyone becomes aggressive. Researchers have investigated why some people use violence as a response to frustration, while others are able to control their emotions. One answer to this question might be how the individual appraises the situation. If a student thinks that another student is out to get them and is intentionally trying to put them down, then the student will respond with violence. However, if the student thinks that the other student accidentally blocked their progress, or that the other student responds that way to everyone, then the student is less likely to engage in violent behavior. The key is how the frustration is analyzed by the individual. Researchers have also identified factors that contribute to frustration such as pain, heat, crowding, and feeling attacked by others. In some cases, cues such as the sight of a weapon or witnessing violence against others, might increase the likelihood of a person becoming violent. If a person is violent because of frustration, then prevention has to focus on the thought process of the individual, and showing them how responding to violence usually leads to unwanted behaviors. Building self-awareness, teaching consequences, and changing a person’s thought pattern have all worked effectively to alter aggressive behavior. The Society for the Prevention of Violence’s curriculum of social skills compiled in the workbooks for children could be an extremely successful way to deal with frustration. In the books, Social Skills: Lessons and Activities there are section titled, “Thinking Before Acting”, “Improving Self-Image”, “Accepting Consequences”, “Using Self-Control”, “Problem Solving”, and “Accepting Change” that provide children with alternative ways to think about the frustration they are dealing with.
The final set of theories is known as the learning approach, which emphasizes the environment as a mediator toward violence. This approach views aggression as a learned behavior with individuals becoming aggressive because of rewards for the violent behavior and imitation of others who are aggressive. In some cases, individuals are rewarded for acting aggressive. The rewards can come in the form of tangible items such as money or food, or they could be intangible such as power, praise or increased status. These theories hypothesize that individuals will continue being violent as long as they are rewarded for the behavior. A bully who gains respect and power because of his or her behaviors will continue acting aggressive as long as the rewards are present.
Another way individuals learn to be violent is by observing others. Researchers have identified three main sources from which this learning has come from: family, society, and the media or other audio-visual mediums. Large numbers of children, who are raised in abusive families, will go on to be abusive themselves. These children learn how to be aggressive by watching the older members of their families such as parents and older siblings. Individuals who live in cities or areas that are characterized by violence, tend to have larger percentages of aggressive crimes committed by the younger members of that society. The children learn that being aggressive can provide them with tools to survive. Finally, there is over whelming evidence that media and audio-visual sources, especially television and video or computer games are linked to aggression. It is estimated that by the age of 18 the average adolescent has seen 200,000 acts of violence and 40,000 murders on television. One long-term study found that watching several hours of violence on television correlated with higher levels of aggressive behaviors in elementary school, and another study established a high correlation between children who watched numerous hours of violence as 8-year-olds and being prosecuted for violent criminal acts as adults. In the 1990’s, the American Psychological Association developed a task force to examine the effects of watching violent television or video games by children. They found children may become less sensitive to the pain and suffering of others, may be more fearful of the world, may be more likely to behave in aggressive ways toward others, and recommended that parents limit the amount of exposure to violent media sources.
If aggression can be learned, then it is possible to learn non-violent traits such as empathy, cooperation, self-restraint, and resilience. Prevention to violence from this approach focuses on learning alternative behaviors or counter conditioning the aggressive behaviors that have already been learned. Prevention for children, who have learned to be violent, requires modeling appropriate behaviors and rewarding the non-violent response. Again, the social skills prevention models promoted by the Society for the Prevention of Violence in the social skills and violence prevention curriculum can be beneficial in curbing violence that is learned. Teachers are encouraged to model the skills being taught and support the children in implementing the skills into their daily lives.
Social scientists study factors associated with aggression and violence in the hopes of comprehending the dynamics of development and to provide solutions to prevention. This article has detailed three of the approaches to understanding the factors of violence and the related models of prevention. Violence can be explained by all three of these approaches, and it is possible that some incidents of violence can be described with a combination of the three theories. Because of the differences needed for prevention from the three approaches, it is also possible that not every prevention technique will help in eliminating violence and aggression. For example, the Society for the Prevention of Violence’s social skills program would probably be unproductive for violence stemming from biological factors. However, only a small percentage of violence can be attributed to biology, with the vast majority coming from frustration and learning approaches. Since social skills prevention from both the frustration and learning approaches seem to be effective, it would be beneficial for all children to have exposure to these special skills.