Keeping the floral faunal, ecological, geomorphologic features in view the landscape shall include:

The Protected Areas form the core elements of the Landscape, the adjacent forest areas forming the buffer and the corridors linking the PA’s. The entire area lies in the Terai Bhabar Biogeographic Sub-Division of the upper Gangetic Plains.

The area is well connected by road and rail network. Several state highways pass through the area. The most important is the Assam Road, also known as the LRP that runs from east to west. The area is serviced by meter gauge railway line that links Gonda with Barielly. There are functional airport at Dhanghari and Nepalganj in Nepal. The nearest airport in India is in Lucknow.

The area of Nighasen and Gola Tehsil of Kheri, Powayan of Shahjehanpur and Nanpara of Bahraich are largely rural with high population density of humans and cattle. The development block wise details of these areas are as follows:

Prior to the abolition of zamindari the zamindars owned large tracts of arable and forest land. The farm labour was brought from eastern UP and Bihar. After zamindari was abolished the excess cultivable land was distributed amongst the landless agricultural labour. In the post independence period large number of displaced persons from Pakistan were settled in the area. They were provided cultivable land mainly by clearing private forests. Large tracts were cleared and wetlands were drained and brought under the plough. The inhabitants of the landscape generally belong to the following major groups – those from eastern UP, those from Pakistan including Punjabis and Bengalis, migrants from Punjab and the locals. According to one study the population around the Park registered a growth of 27% in the course of a decade from 1971 to 1981. Thus more pressure was brought to bear on the forest resources.

The common property lands and resources are worst affected in Nighasen tehsil. The population density of the tehsil has increased considerably over the last two decades. The population groups constantly endeavour to maintain their interests and identity. The immigrant labour and the Bengalis are the weakest economically but have a growing political clout. The Punjabi displaced persons and migrants are financially the strongest and wield considerable political clout. The locals are always anxious to safeguard their interests against the immigrants. The locals are strongest in the process of decision making.

Amongst the locals are also the tharu tribals. They are settled cultivators, keep large herd of cattle, some sheep and goats. They have a distinct cultural identity. Most of their villages are enclaved in the northern buffer of the Park. A few are located elsewhere in the landscape within close proximity of the Park. There are some tharu villages in the proximity of Katerniyaghat Sanctuary. They are related to the tharus in the terai areas of Nepal. The tharus depend on the forests for food, fodder, medicine, small timber for construction of huts and agricultural implements, handicrafts, social and religious ceremonies. The major tharu groups include the Ranas, Dingoras and Katharias. Marriages between these groups are very uncommon. Once their habitations were forest villages but now these are revenue villages. The tribal area development schemes have benefited these people. They have adopted modern farming techniques and have slowly shifted from subsistence level farming to raising cash crops. Some now own tractor and other farm implements. The Ecodevelopment initiatives have largely focused on these tharu villages.

The land holding patterns indicate that 30-40% of the private and leased land is in the form of small holdings (1-2 ha). The smaller holdings relate to cases of non-transferable land leased by the Government to immigrant labour and to encroached land. Due to increase in family size and consequent split in families the original holdings have diminished in size due to partitioning. The number of unemployed has increased and there has been a simultaneous increase in dependence on forest produce. Incidents of vandalism and illegal activities inside the Reserve have increased.

Agriculture is the mainstay of the local economy. The soil is fertile, the water table is high and improved agricultural practices have led to good yields. While the average size of the land holding is small, the majority of the farmers having subsistence type of agriculture, a good number of large, well managed farms practicing highly profitable agriculture on commercial scale also exist. These large farms belong mostly to Punjab immigrants. The crops raised are sugarcane, paddy, wheat, pulses, maize and vegetables. The introduction of modern farming techniques with large dependence on the use of chemical fertilisers, insecticides and pesticides has increased the agricultural productivity, but at the same time is causing changes in the bio-geo-chemical cycles that are presently not fully understood. The small farmers and landless work as labour on the larger farms. People keep a lot of livestock including milch cattle, draught animals goat, sheep, pigs and poultry. A small percentage of the people are involved in local business and are employed in services in the Government and private sector. Economic strength lies with the big farmers. The area is economically backward with perceptible disparities. Educational backwardness especially amongst women is common. Medical facilities are also not easily available.

In the part of the landscape in district Kheri, Palia is byfar the biggest market and largest township. The administrative head quarter of Nighasan Tehsil is at Nighasan. Bhira and Mailani have markets where essential commodities are available. Mahinpurwa in district Bahraich is the biggest market is the biggest market in the eastern part of the landscape. A kattha factory is also located here. These places have hospitals, educational facilities and other civic amenities. There are several weekly markets that operate in the rural areas where local villagers purchase items of daily requirements. Palia appears to have benefited most from the service industry associated with tourism in the Reserve. Hotels, restaurant shops and other amenities have developed to cater to requirements of tourists.

Burgeoning human and livestock populations and their ever increasing demands have led to need for more and more areas to be brought under the plough by means fair and foul. A large portion of the swamps have been drained and converted to sugarcane fields. Rampant encroachment of forest land outside the PA’s has also contributed significantly to the reduction of wild life refuges in the landscape and the disappearance of vital linkages in the corridors linking the PA’s.

People living in and around the PA’s are dependent on them for fuel wood, fodder, and thatching grass. They also opportunistically collect medicinal plants, fruits, nuts and berries for food. The collection of fuel wood is not only for domestic consumption but is also sold in the market as a means of livelihood. Fuel wood cutting and gathering goes on round the year increasing seasonally in winter and declining in monsoon when the areas get waterlogged and are inaccessible. Domestic consumption accounts for 60% (350 bundles weighing 25 kg each) of the fuel wood collected. The rest reaches the market every day, the main markets being Palia, Bhira, Bellraien, Mailani, Mahinpurwa and Dhanghari.

Thatch grass is cut and collected during December to February. The removal of fruits, nuts, berries and honey is opportunistic and seasonal.

Grazing by ever increasing number of livestock is a constant pressure faced by the PA’s. It is estimated that close to 40000 head of cattle graze in the buffer zones of the Park and in the Kishanpur Sanctuary. The Nepalese villagers are known to drive their cattle into the Park for grazing. About 40,000 cattle also graze in the Katerniyaghat Sanctuary. Of these about 2000 are feral – these are of Nepalese origin and are driven into the Indian forests to graze. Most of the cattle are of poor quality and are kept primarily for producing draught animals. In summer cattle from distant areas are driven to village in proximity of the PA’s so that they may graze in the PA in the pinch period when fodder is scarce elsewhere.

Ungulates and tiger find habitat continuum in croplands. Here they also face high risk of poaching. Poaching methods include use of wire snares, electric trip wires, nets, traps, muzzle loading guns, and baited explosives. Despite efforts, a large number of cases go undetected. At times poachers try to hunt inside the PA’s. The situation is especially difficult along the Indo-Nepal border during the monsoon, when accessibility from the Indian side is difficult, and Nepalese poachers being aware of this try to take advantage. Another aspect of poaching is fishing in the PA limits. Constantly increasing demand motivates people to try fish in these areas despite knowing that it is an offence. The river systems are also affected by poisoning of the waters for killing fish in Nepal.

A long standing problem of the PA’s is having to deal with antisocial elements who have traditionally found the forests a safe hideaway and transit zone. The PA’s are used by dacoits to hoodwink the police and other law enforcement agencies. Field staff face a difficult situation and often have to work at risk of life and limb. Smuggling across the international border is a significant illegal activity. It goes on despite the presence of several law enforcement agencies as the borders are open and the forests provide excellent cover. It is also the reason why the law enforcement agencies want to have ever increasing presence in the forests and also want unlimited access to all areas. In the recent past the presence of Nepalese Maoist terrorist and ISI activists has been reported in the area. This has added a whole new dimension to management and protection related issues. The area is also identified as being part of the trade route of illegal wild life products. Over the years several cases have been detected.

Crop raiding by wild animals is an important people – PA interface issue. It goes on unabated. The wild animals face the threat of poaching while the villagers and their livestock face threat to life and limb from the carnivorous animals that follow the ungulates out of the PA’s. Herbivorous animals damage the agricultural crops. In the National Park and Kishanpur Sanctuary sector the payment of compensation as per existing rules for loss of human life or limb, killing of cattle and damage to crops by elephants, is done on priority, there are often some delays. This combined with the fact there is no provision for compensating the much greater damage to crops that is inflicted by deer and wild boar is a sore point in the PA-people relationship. The situation in Katerniyaghat sector is different with a relatively poor record of payment of compensation. The situation in the other forest areas in the landscape is similarly poor.

The area has had a long standing problem of man-killing by tigers. These incidents now mostly occur outside the PA boundaries as the agricultural fields offer continuity of habitat by providing appropriate combination of conditions for resting, hiding and ambush cover. The number of tigers outside the Reserve boundaries increases during the monsoon and post-monsoon period when in search of food they follow the herbivores out to the agricultural fields. Some people have gone to the extent of creating a special class of ‘sugar cane tigers’ to describe these animals. The presence of high density of humans and livestock gives rise to high propensity of encounters. The man-kill rate is consequently higher even if it is accidental. Cattle in these areas also serve as supplement to natural prey. All the same it contributes significantly to the man-animal conflict situation. These are serious dimensions that need to be addressed.

The reserved forests in the landscape are under great biotic pressure. These area are managed for production of forest produce. Beside harvest of forest produce plantation are also done. The pressure on these forests are so great that all but the Shahjehanpur Division are categorised as sensitive. Illicit felling tends to go up with slightest laxity on part of the staff. The removal of NTFP is also far in excess of the prescribed limits. Aside the problem of encroachment that has been mentioned earlier, the problems of arson, trespass and poaching have serious dimensions.

Large scale human colonisation, development of infrastructure and other amenities etc. has largely ignored conservation concerns. The canal and road network not only serve as barriers to migration of many species, they also serve as death traps. Development of road and rail network has made possible rapid influx of people, thereby aiding in increased pressure on natural resources. As mentioned above, changes in agricultural practices to boot productivity are affecting the ecology.

In case of the National Park, the history of the forests date back to 1861 when the area was taken over from Khairigarh Pargana and preserved as forest land. These were reserved in 1879 under Act of 1878. In 1937 they were constituted as reserved forest under the Indian Forest Act 1927. Historically the North Kheri Forests from which Dudwa was subsequently carved out, were prime hunting grounds for tiger and other game species and equally well known for sal timber. During post independence period encroachment of forestland and poaching continued unabated. Alarmed by the degradation of forests and the visible decline if wild life, the Sonaripur Sanctuary comprising 15.7 sq km was created in 1958 to specifically protect the swamp deer. Thus a conservation nucleus was established. This however proved to be too small. In 1968 it was enlarged to 212 sq km and named Dudwa Sanctuary. This provided more suitable conditions for rehabilitation of swamp deer and wild life forms. Ultimately having considered the floral, faunal, ecological, geomorphological importance and the wild life potential of the area, the Government increased the area to 490 sq km and created the Dudwa National Park in 1977.

The Kishanpur Sanctuary was created in 1972. These were brought under the Project Tiger Scheme of the Government of India and declared as Tiger Reserve in 1987-88.

Before the creation of the Park, eight species of trees were permitted to be cut by villagers under forest rules within a belt of 7.5 km width along the Reserve forest boundary line. The local tharu tribals were allowed to graze their cattle free and permitted to collect thatch grass, firewood and minor forest produce. Other villagers were allowed to graze their cattle and collect NTFP for a fee. Cattle grazing was controlled by area and the number of cattle while the extraction of grass and other forest produce were controlled quantitatively. After the creation of the Park all concessions were commuted. Only grass cutting and collection of firewood was allowed during winter till 1983 on payment. The villagers were given this concession on the condition that they would help in fighting forest fires.

In Bahraich also the forests were taken over from the Oudh kingdom and administered under the Wasteland Rules and were declared to be State forests in 1861. The British administration began commercial exploitation of the forests.

Prior to being declared as PA’s the forests were managed intensively for maximum timber yields on a sustained basis. As a result a few selected timber species were favoured and others were eliminated to provide more area to the economically valuable species. In many areas miscellaneous forests were replaced with teak and Eucalyptus. Conservation of wildlife was never a serious concern. There is regular mention in the working plans of the damage caused by wild animals to the plantations and to the regeneration areas. For the first time wildlife conservation concerns were expressed in the Working Plan for the period 1985-86 to 1994-95.

However it needs to be appreciated that the retention of fruit bearing tree was prescribed even in those areas where the defined objective was the maximising of timber productivity. Similarly the retention of tree cover along streams and rivers proved beneficial for wild life. The plantation of semal, sissoo and mulberry were also beneficial from wild life point of view. Fire conservancy measures have been practiced for a long time. These factors combined with the remoteness and unapproachability of the area helped to sustain good populations of all the wild life species of the area.

In the post independence period the implementation of developmental activities the enhanced human presence resulting from the settlement of immigrant populations the area became more conveniently accessible and came under immense anthropogenic pressure. This had a great impact on the ecosystem and the wild life. This was reflected in the decline in the number of some species and the total elimination of others.

Even after the creation of the PA’s, their management was not to a plan. Except for the Park for which a management plan had been prepared, the management of the other areas was mostly adhoc based on annual plans. The greatest intervention was generally the lack of it. Protection was accorded the highest priority. However even for this the resources were usually very limited. While the management of the Kishanpur Sanctuary area was handed over to the Wild life wing of the Forest Department in 1987-88 the Katerniyaghat Sanctuary was transferred only in 1998. Since then the biodiversity conservation concerns have been strengthened.

The concerns for the conservation of wildlife have been incorporated in the Management Plans of the Forests Divisions of the landscape in the last two decades in form of Overlapping Working Circles. These have general prescriptions aimed at protection. However these prescriptions have not been properly implemented. The protection of wildlife was generally left to the Wildlife Wardens. Serious wildlife concerns have never been a part of the management of these areas.

The management of the PA’s will in future be to a plan as their Management Plans have been prepared. All the PA’s now are part of the Project Tiger Scheme of the Government of India. Since all the PA’s are now part of the Dudwa Tiger Reserve Circle, it has become possible to enhance the conservation concerns. The conservation concerns need to be strengthened in the Management Plans of the adjoining Divisions.

Eco awareness activities is surrounding areas are undertaken from time to time by P.A. authorities. But these are neither well focused nor are they to a Plan. Most activities are adhoc with little follow-up.

Peoples assistance in conservation has been obtained to some extent in the National Park with the establishment of an informal network called ‘tiger guardians’ – a set of locally in fluvial people who have shown keenness to participate in conservation.

The Eco-development initiatives are also helping to build bridges with the people living in the surrounds of the P.A.’s Eco-development through village level microplanning has been taken up in 85 villages in immediate vicinity of the P.A.’s. So far the results have been encouraging. Efforts are also being made to develop Joint Forest Management concerns in the reserved forest areas out side the P.A.’s. These should be helpful in developing friendly human buffer around the P.A.’s.

Initiative to address the trans-border issues at the National level through the Trans-border Consultative Committee are ongoing. These issues are being addressed at the local level through the quarterly border meetings organised by respective administrations on either side the border and also through meeting of trans border forest and wild life officials.

The conservation concerns in the reserved forest areas are yet only notional. These are almost completely backing in other activities in the Landscape.

The Terai is one of the most threatened ecosystem in the country. Records show that not too long ago major portions of the terai were wilderness areas. However burgeoning human population and the need to meet their ever increasing demands has caused large tracts to be brought under the plough by means fair and foul. Thus what was not too long ago, a continuous stretch of wilderness extending along the entire Himalayan foothills in the State, is now fragment and restricted to isolated patches. Of these islands of biological diversity, the P.A.’s of the landscape are the largest and most significant. Biodiversity conservation becomes a difficult and challenging task because:

The components of the Landscape have been proposed on the basis of:

Comments on the proposed Plan received from different sources are enclosed.