Kamboja

Project: Kamboja
Author: Lem Chuck Moth

Started date: June/01/2003
Last updated: October/01/2009
All right reserved.
Note:
Since this paper is still drafted, the readers would be advised to ignore any context errors. The content is not final and subjected to be reviewed. Please kindly notify me of the discrepancies.
INTRODUCTION
Scholars consented that Cambodia was a derivative of Kamboja and agreed that its history dated since the Christian era when Chinese texts had recorded the emergence of the Funan Empire. The Chinese diplomats Kang Thai and Chu Ying, visiting Funan in the middle of third century, provided records of their visit that became a good source of information about its early foundation. The records included the legend of a foreign Brahman named Hun Tien who managed to subdue a local queen and married her.
The ruler (of Funan) was a woman, named Ye-lieou. There was then a stranger, named Houn-houi, who practiced the art of genies; he dreamt that a genie gave him an arch, and told him take a ship to the sea. In the morning, Houn-houi went to temple of the genie: there he found an arch, and along with the merchants, embarked to the sea. He arrived at the outside of Funan. Ye-lieou brought her troops to resist him. Houn-houi armed his arch. Ye-lieou was scared and submitted to him. Houen-houie took her for spouse and also the empire. (FUNAN: P. 754)
Uneasy to see Ye-lieou and her men all naked, he taught her to use a piece of cloth to pierce her head through. He ruled over her kingdom and took Ye-lieou for his queen. The story must to captivate the interest of Chinese readers very much so that it was repeated in many other Chinese texts. The fact that Queen Ye-lieou and her army were naked had leaded to the belief that they were primitive (Notes: Ancient civilization). However, we had argued that Southeast Asia was the seat of the Paramakamboja Kings since the early time (Nagadvipa: The land of the Naga: Sri Paramesvara). Ancient Chinese text had mentioned a very old society called Sou-Chen sending their ambassadors to the court of China since the twelve century BC. Queen Ye-lieou, undoubtedly the contemporary queen of Sou-Chen or Kauk Tloak, was controlling the sea route of the region. In addition her name "Ye-lieou", meaning "the flat of willow tree" might also be another reference to the Khmer name Kauk Tloak, the flat island of Tloak tree.
The Fu of the South
Concurrent to the emergence of Funan in Chinese texts, local tradition witnesses the formation of Kambojadesa or the Kamboja Kingdom by western Kambojan leadership, during the Christian era. The people of Gandhara used the word Kamboja as their surname and identity. In Sanskrit, the word Kamboja (Kam-boja) meant Kam nationality. Scholars identified them as of Indo-Aryan stock and lived in Gandhara of modern Afganistan. Around the Christian era, they were over-ran by the Yueh-Chis of Central Asia. Scholars believed that a group of Kam leaders had moved eastward and established themselves in Bangladesh as the Pala kings, and another group had moved south and established themselves as the Pallavas. The Kam kings in Southeast Asia, by implication, were thought to root from the Pallavas of southern India. New findings show that both the pallvas of South India and the Palas of North India had no connection with the presence of the Western Kambojan leadership in pre-chriatian era at all (NOtes: The Indian Kamboja). These Kambojan elites were classified as Indo-aryans belonging to the Simha stock of Middle-eastern origin but, like the Kamara KIngs, they claimed themselves as belonging to the human race. The Chinese called them the Fu, meaning human of the Fu Dog (Simha) ethnicity. Fu-nan was named as the Fu of the south since it was located at the south of China, the same ways as Jin-nan and Yueh-nan were referring to the strongholds of the southern Jin (Kamara) and southern Yueh (Saka) cultures. Confuse of identities emerged as Kamboja, literally meaning the kingdom of the Kams, was named over a part of the ancient Kamara territory of Nokor Phnom. On the wrong premise that Funan was the very first civilized state of the region, scholars had long suggested that the Chinese word "Funan" is the transcription of the Khmer word "Phnom" meaning mountain. However, we had seen that Nokor Phnom, a legacy of the Hiong-wang kingdom was long predating the Funan Empire and its existence was recorded in Chinese texts since the twelfth century BC. Even though Nokor Phnom was very much of Khmer legacy, its original and its actual location was at the Tian Shan range and not of Cambodia today (Nagadvipa: The visit of Buddha Gautama: The split of the Naga world). Dated after the arrival of king Hun Tien, Funan was just another spread-out of the Fu's civilization over the ancient societies of Hiong-wang. On the same premise, the northern Siam tradition referred Funan as Pu-Kam, the country of the human Kam, literally referring to the country of the Kam kings. Founded first at the southern part of Cambodia today, near the island of Kauk Tloak, Funan or Pu-kam had its capital centered at Angkorpuri that was perhaps the kingdom of queen Ye-lieou. During its apoge, Funan was extending itself over the whole of Southeast Asia and like the Jin societies of the past, its people were mostly formed from the indegenous people of the region. As time goes by, Pu-kam moved along with the displaced Kam court, and at the end it became Pagan of Burma.
THE FUNAN COURT
For the lack of other sources, the information about Funan relied heavily on Chinese records. Recorded by Chinese scholars during their visit to the country, these records provided priceless information about the new founded Funan Empire. For the sake of preserving the originality, we decide to stand-by its Chinese name Funan and Kamboja would be mentioned only when clarification is needed. In parallel to the development of other parts of the world, we shall see that the court of Funan was not homogeneously formed from the descendants of King Hun Tien. At the contrary, it was a combined legacy of the Kamaras, the Kambojas and the Chams. Nevertheless, we shall see that the Paramkambojan legacy stood out as the unification factor in the new consortium. We found inscriptions that, through a reverence to the past, reveal the identity of the first common ancestors of the Khmer, the Kambojan and the Cham kings. The inscription of Baksei Chamkrong, makes reference to the legendary Sri Kambu, and two of his successors Srutavarman and Srestavarman to be among the progenitors of kings ruling over Kamboja desa.
King Hun Tien and the re-establishment of Funan
Chinese records provides conflicting information about the origin of king Hun Tien. Some source comment that he was a Brahman from the South, more likely from the Malay Archipelago or the South of India where Brahmans of Kam stocks are still residing. The reference of Ki or Kia as a refrence to his country of origin could further locate his origin to the southern Kia kingdom of Mesopotamia or Egypt. In other sources, he was mentioned to be from the kingdom of Kiao that is Yunnan which is also consistent with the presence of the Kamboja of daya Desa, mentioned in northern Siam traditon. His background was mentioned as a Brahman, thus a Hindu worshiper. Now that he became the ruler of Funan, he would undoubtedly reinforce the Hindu Culture by recruiting more Kambojan Brahmans into his court. After his death, a son of his is said to found seven cities on the mainland Indochina that, as we have argued, were mostly cities of the Siam Country. However, his successor Hun Pan Houang, by mean of tricks, succeeded to inflict mistrust between the cities and used his troupes to conquer all of them. He then had his sons and grand sons to rule each one of the cities separately; people called them little kings (Rajaputs or Chao-fas?). He died at the age of 90 years old. His son, Pan Pan, was to resume the throne with the help of his grand general Fan Man. After three years of reign, he died. As the Mainland at the time composed very much of the upper Menam valley and the Khorat Plateau, most of its inhabitants were mostly of Jin and Lawa tribesmen. According to Siam Tradition (Annales du Siam: Suvanna Khamdeng, Translted by M. Camille Notton), the Lawa tribesmen were left out from previous cultural development and were still uncivilized. The arrival of the Kambojan leadership, as we had seen, started the civilization of the Lawa tribesmen. Pya Suvann Khamdeng, since perhaps the early stage of the Xia Dynasty, instruted the Lawa tribesmen to form the first civilized society of the upper Menam Valley (Sakadvipa: The Saka of daya Desa: King Suvanna Khamdeng and the formation of Nararatha). By the time of Buddha Gautama 's visit to Southeast Asia, the Lawa tribesmen of the Menam Valley were already civilized (Nagadvipa: The visit of Buddha Gautama: The spreading of Buddhism). It is said that four Lawa monks were then ordained and that the place of their ordination was later known as LawaSangharatha. The arrival of King Hun Tien obviously brought another level of civilization to the Siam country as well as the whole Funan Empire. Hun Tien who was identified as a descendant of Kambu was undoubtedly the same race Chon or Chuang as the Praya Corani of the Siam tradition. Apparently, Hun Tien finished the work of his predescessor Pya Khamdeng, in forming many more cities of the Menam Valley (Notes: Hun Tien and Pya Khamdeng). These cities that became later the foundation of Kamboja Desa, as mentioned later in the Khmer inscriptions, were already been formed in the past. One of the cities, Pan Pan for instance, named after the second descendant of king Hun Tien was obviously built on top of the ancient city Lawasangharatha, known later as Lavo. As we had identified that Pan Pan was Srestavarman, the city of Pan Pan was then no other than Srestapura. We shall see that Shrestapura or Lawaratha was going to play important role in the history of the Kamboja kingdom in many centuries to come.
King Fan Man (to 230 AD) and the consolidation of Funan
There is no information on his blood relationship to the previous king of Funan except that he was a grand general of King Pan Pan. According to Chinese sources, the people of Funan elected him as king after Pan Pan died. Fan Man or Fan Shih Man in the Chinese text was the next king of Funan, known by his surname of "Sri Man". As soon as he got the power, he started a campaign to expand the Funan Empire. His expansion, as we shall see, retrieved back the Kamara's territory lost to the Saka kings. Evidence show that his conquest included Champapura where an inscription at Don-duong recalled the king named "Sri Man Dharmmaraja" as one of the earliest kings to rule over Champapura (Champapura: The attack of the Funan Empire). It is important to note that the title was consistent with the tradition of ancient Kamara court of Sri Dhammaraja or Ligor. From there, we conclude that Sri Man was a member of the Paramakamboja grass root of the Malay Archipelago. He died in the course of an expedition against the kingdom of Chin Lin. A Chinese text gives more information about the Funan court after his death.
Fan Man fell sick, he sent his son, the heir Chin Cheng for his replacement. The son of Fan Man big sister, Chan, was the chief of two thousands men. By them, he usurped Funan, and proclaimed himself king. He sent men to attack Kin Cheng and killed him.
The Chinese word Kin Cheng meaning the Golden city or country might refer to Suvanaphmumi, an ancient country visited by Budhha Gautama, and as we shall see was referring to Prajinpuri of the Khorat Plateau. After the death of Sri Man, his son apparently finished his father's conquest over Kin Lin and received the title of Chin Cheng or the Jin King.
King Fan Chan (230-250 AD) and King Fan Hsun (250-287 AD)
He was the nephew of king Fan Man. He ascended the throne of Funan after murdering the legitimate heir Chin Cheng. During his reign, Funan entered into relations with the Indian dynasty of Murandas and sent its first embassy to China. This was an attempt to establish the eastern side sea route, connecting the Kushan Empire of Northwestern India to China. In his turn, king Fan Chan was murdered by a son of Fan Man named Chang. Unfortunately, the palace intrigue continued. The next king Fan Hsun was known as a general of king Fan Chan and took the Funan throne back from king Fan Shis Man's son Chang, after murdering the latter. Around 250 AD, he received the Chinese mission of Kang Tai and Chu Ying to meet an envoy of the Murandas at his court. The relationship between Funan and China continued under his reign with series of dispatching embassies to China from 268 to 287 AD which characterized as the resurgence of sea trade after the reunification of China by the chin in 280 AD. Kang Tai and Chu Ying gave a glimpse picture of his court. In the morning and at the noon he gave three or four audiences. The foreigners and his people give him as present bananas, sugar canes, turtles and birds.
THE KAMBOJA DESA
Scholars mistakenly attribute the arrival of king Hun Tien as the very first contact of the indigenous people with civilization. Some go far to postulate that without his Indianization, the local people would have been still savage. As we had argued, Southeast Asia had been the seat of early civilization at least since the Great Flood and as many other parts of the world, it experienced the up and down cycle of its civilization. King Hun Tien came to the right moment that the Paramakamboja need to bring themselves up to become again a power-house of the region. Contrary to the common believe that king Hun-tien came to built a new empire for himself, evidences show instead that he came to revive back the past legacy of the ancient Paramakamboja of the region. After the Hans drove down the Chou court from Central China, Southeast Asia became under the spell of the Cham aristocrats. The arrival of King Hun-tien and the reestablishment of Funan, as we shall see, reversed the course of the event. In preventing the Han court to take control all of the Chou's territory, the grass root Chu of Prey Nokor would seek alliance with the Funan Empire to fight off the Han chinese (Champapura: The formation of Champapura: The uprising of Lin-yi).
The identity of Sri Kambu
For long, western scholars had postulated that the Kamboj identity was originated at Gandhara while many local scholars believe that the Kam and the Khmer identities were identical. The first assumption is true based on the cultural sense, because the Kam culture, through the Kambojan power-elite from Gandhara, was layered over the Kamara culture (Notes: The Kam identity). The second assumption is also true, since the Kam Culture was conceived in close connection to the Meru Culture. According to the Khmer Inscription of Baksei Chamkrong, the legendary Sri Kambu, known as the progenator of the Kamboj's race, was not native of Ganthara.
Svayambhuvan Namata Kamvam udirnnakirttim yasya rkkasomakula sangatim apnuvanti Saisantatis Sakakacastra tamopahantri tejasvini mrdukara kalayabhipurna. (JA:Inscription du Cambodge: L'inscription de Baksei Camkron, by George Coedes)
The word "rkkasomakula" indicates that he belonged to the Man race of the Soma or Moon Culture, common to both the members of the Kambojan and Chenla courts found later in Khmer history. In addition, the Svayambhuva' s connection reveals his generation to the Manu Svayambhuva. From these descriptions, we are confident enough to identify Sri Kambu of Khmer inscription as a reference to the progenitor of the race Kamboja that was named after him. He was mentioned as a Maharshi (ascetic figure) that is unusual for a Kambojan Brahman of Ganthara as it is well known that Kambujan Brahmans as other Sakabrahmans of the West were more priest than ascetic. The last sentence "tejasvini mrdukara kalayabhipurna" appears to mention that Sri Kambu was connecting to the ancient foundation of Maraduk of Kalyani (kalayani-purana). His connection to the Meru court was certainly through his consort Meram.
Meram udara yacasam surasundarinam ide triloka guru napi
Scholars postulate that from the combination of the two names, Kambu and Meram, came the word Khmer. However, Khmer tradition identified the word Khmer as a short form of the word Kumeru and had nothing to do with the word Kambu to mean in Sanskrit as thief. Nevertheless, we shall see that the western Saka Culture, through King Hun Tien, would bring another level of materialistic progression to the Hoabinhian Culture. The marriage of the two cultures was contributing to the formation of a new generation of the Khmer-mon societies. Under the Kam nationality, the Southeast Asian Kamboja Desa was formed on the ground of the khmer-mon people. Since then, the Kam culture remained dominant at the Menam Valley until it was overrun by the Tai culture at the thirteenth century. It is interesting to point out that the southern parts of Thailand today is still known as the Kam-tai, an acknowledgment of the presence of the Kam legacy in the southern part of the Menam Valley.
The Varman legacy
Like most of their peers, the Phalava kings and later the Pala and Pallava kings of India, the Khmer-kam kings had their royal title ending with varman, an indication that they were the protégé of a certain divinity. As an example, king Srutavarman (Sruta-varman) was a protégé of Lord Sruta. Identified later as a descendant of king Hun Tien, Srutavarman was the first king known to be a varman king mentioned in Khmer inscriptions. The legacy had passed on to all Champa and Khmer kings of Southeast Asia, seen maintained rigorously through out the history of the Kambojan Empire. It was then inferring that conforming to the Kambojan lagacy, all Funan kings received their crown name ending with "varman". Attested in inscriptions were two descendants of Sri Kambu, king Srutavarman and Srestavarman. Some scholars argue that the word "fan" used in early Chinese texts in relation to the Funan or Lin-yi kings, was the adaptation of the word "varman". The argument was obviously unfounded since the Chinese historians had the word "pa-mo" already consistently used for that purpose. On the other hand the word "fan" could be a corruption of another word "fan" meaning "brahma" based on the premise that Funan rulers were belonging mostly to the Brahman cast. Actually, the word "fan" as it is the exact translation of the word "surname", was used by the Chinese text to predicate a royal surname. As an example, "fan Man" or "fan Shis Man" was referring to Sri Man Dhammaraja known by his surname as Sri Man. On the same token, "fan Yang Mah" was referring to Kaundinya known by his surname as Yang Mah or Prah Thong. There were no evidences so far that these two great Funan rulers were the Varman kings as they were not of Western Kambojan stocks. The descendants of Prah Thong, lined from Kaundinya and the nagi princess however were all retaining this Varman legacy. After they were pushed out from Funan by the Chenla kings, they brought the Kamboj legacy to South India where they formed the Pallava court and also to north India where they formed the Pala court of Bengal.
The organization
One radical aspect of the civilization brought by king Hun Tien was the hierarchy classification of the ruling class. Even though the typical Hindu Casting System was not strictly enforced, the ruling class was elevated to higher status than that of previous court of Queen Ye-lieou. Organization should have been completely changed to the standard of a big Empire. Ranking with different level of titles was established among Funan power elite. Wan Tchen in his "Nan chu yi wou che" cites:
The vassal regions have all their mandarins. The right and left grand officers of the sovereign all name Kun Lun. The Tong Tien, an encyclopedia at the end of VIII century by Tou Yeoun (Funan XVII) At the time of the Sui (sixth century), the family name of the king of that kingdom (Funan) was Kou-long. In the kingdom many have for family name Kou-long. Old people, when asked, say that Kun Lun do not have family name. (That name of Kou-long) is a corruption of Kun Lun.
The two passages brought up important historical fact about the Funan court. The first one mentioned about the Chinese word "Kun Lun" as a common title of the two high officers of the court. This title was the same one, used later in the Angkorian court and mentioned in inscriptions as "Kamara", the Khmer appointee. It is clear that the Kamara legacy of the Hioung Wang court was preserved in the Funan court which, after the reign of Fan Shis man, composed mostly of Kamara and Kam stocks. Since both Chinese sources were not contemporary of the Funan era, there were discrepancies in the interpretation of the two words. At the end of VIII century, the memory of the Funan Empire had long been fading. In his encyclopedia, Tou Yeoun try to give a glimpse description of the old Funan Empire.
In the kingdom many have for family name Kou-long. When he asked old people who might have better memory, they say that Kun Lun do not have family name.
Tou Yeoun then presumed that the name Kou-long must be a corruption of Kun Lun and he was wrong. Unlike China or India which family name was and is preserved consistently through out generations, the Khmer Tradition did not have family name (Notes: The Family Name). This tradition applies also to the royal family and as result, their family tree is not easily traceable. To make up with this systematic deficiency, Khmer tradition used surname to define their immediate lineage or dynasty. For instance, Kou-long mentioned by Chinese texts as a family name of the Funan kings, was in fact his surname. Its exact translation is the "sage dragon", the interpretation of the Naga King of ancient Kamara legacy. Khmer tradition mentioned that the king of Funan was Kambunaga, a descendant of Kambu and the nagi queen Liu-yi. Other Chinese sources also refer Kia-long or Ki-long as the same kingdom of Ba-phnom (Xieng-mai: Introduction). This reference might have been connected to the origin of King Hun-tien himself, since he was mentioned to be from the Kia country. It is also important to note that the surname "Naga King" does not identify the true ethnicity of the naga kings who, like the Kambojan kings, considered themselves as of human race.
THE FUNAN CULTURE
At the time that the country of queen Ye-lieou was subjugated by king Hun-tien, there are indications that its society, even though cultivated, still retained its own indigenous life-style. The history of the Ancient Songs (420-478) reproduced an ancient song composed for the court of Tsin by Tchang Houa (232-300) (BEFEO III: Le Funan, Paul Pelliot).
Sou Chen borrows clothes and the Funan needs multiple interpreters.
The fact that ambassadors from the Funan Empire need multiple interpreters indicates mixed languages used among them. The theme of the song appeared to indicate that Sou-chen was the precursor of the Funan Empire. Sou-chen had been often mentioned at the same time as Yue-chang (Takkasila) as a state of Southeast Asia that sent out a delegate to visit the Chinese sage Tcheou Kong in prehistoric time. As the Chinese word "Sou-chen" is referring to a proper name of a tree belonging to the evergreen family, Sou-chen appeared to be the legacy of a more primitive civilization, retaining its indigenous name after a tree. It was undoubtedly a reference to Nokor Kauk Tloak, a remnant of the Kamara society of the ancient Hiong-wang kingdoms. The mentioning of theirs ambassadors borrowing cloth to show up at the Chinese court indicated their habit of being naked back in their homeland.
The scripture
By the time that King Hun-tien took control of Sou-chen, evidences show that at least some parts of the mainland Indo-china were already under the Chams (Sakadvipa: The Cham Countries). One of theirs contribution was the introduction of scripture, a system of writing that enables the new society to communicate and educate itself, a Chinese text provides us the following information.
There are books and depositories of archives and other things. Their characters for writing resemble those of the Hou.
The Hous were the Mongols of Central Asia who used the same scripture as the northwestern India. Scholars had found ancient texts from Kucha, Karashahr, and Turfan of Central Asia, written in script resembling to the known Brahmi script of northwestern India. Funan undoubtedly used the same scripture that had been imported long ago in Southeast Asia by king Ajiraja. The earliest specimen of the script was found inscribed on the gold ring unearthed from the archeology site of Oc-Eo. It was a seal used perhaps to authenticate documents. From its reverse image, the text inscribed on the surface of the ring reads in Sanskrit "sanghapottasya", clearly in second or third century Brahmi script. In its original form the scripture had angular shape and was highly decorated.
The dress code
As Kang Tai and Chu Ying recorded, the culture of Funan was at first goes with body naked and tattooed, with their hair on the back and have neither outerwear nor underwear. In the legend, the queen Ye-lieou herself appeared naked at her first encounter with king Hun Tien. After subduing her army and too control of her country, one of his very first affairs was to dress-up his queen. It started from a simple piece of cloth with a hole cut at the middle that she can pierce her head through. From then on, she would never walk naked again. This enforcement might apply to his new court as well but seems to have no effect on the rural people, especially among the men. At the arrival of Kang Tai and Chu Ying, people were still walking naked. Only during the reign of king Fan Siung, with the request from the Chinese court that all people were required to use a simple cloth to cover their body. Fan Siung for the first time ordered to the men of the country to wear a piece of cloth called the kan man. The rich families cut it from the brocade; the poor used the simple cloth. We get all that information from the History of Southern Chi.
The sons of great families cut brocade to make themselves sarongs; the women passed their head [through some material to dress themselves]. The poor cover themselves with a piece of cloth.
The cloth could be made from the bark of special tree through primitive processes, but also were made from cotton using more advanced process of weaving. Considering that isolated Khmer-mon tribes of today had more or less capability of weaving theirs own cloths, it is likely that this invention was local and was not imported from India or China. The fact that the Funanese of the time preferred to be naked was not because of the lack of means, but was more likely of theirs habit. Finer cloths like brocade, on the other hand, were imported along with other luxury items to cater the high court and society.
The societies
The History of Southern Chi (Paul Pelliot) provides a glimpse of the livelihood of the Funan (Kamboja) Empire during its late formation. It was first about the bad reputation of the Funanese of making slaves from neighboring tribes that were not submitted to them.
The people of Funan are malicious and cunning. They abduct and make slaves of inhabitants of neighboring towns who do not pay them homage. As merchandise they have gold, silver, and silks.
The habit might have been indigenous, but nevertheless not restricted if not re-enforced by the arrival of the Kamboj kings. The practice could be checked out by many tales retained among indigenous tribes. To be left alone from capturing as sex slaves for the Kamboj court, women of the Kachin and many other naga tribes had to tattoo their faces that became part of their tradition until modern days. Women of some other tribes splashe themselves with dirt and make themselves to look sick, apparently to show themselves unattractive in front of strangers.
They cut down trees to make their dwellings and the king lives in a storied pavilion. They make their city walls of wooden palisades. Enormous bamboo with leaves eight or nine feet long, shoot up along the seashore. Their leaves are woven to cover the houses. The people also live in raised dwellings.
The habitable dwellings, including the royal palace, were mostly built from light material. Communication were mostly through waterways, an accommodation of still submerged country. The boats were described as long canoes common to all Southeast Asian long boat of today.
They make boats that are eight or nine chang long. These are hewn to six or seven feet in width. The bow and stern are like the head and tail of a fish. When the king travel, he goes by elephant. Women can also go on elephants. For amusement, the people bet on cock fight and pig fight.
Elephants were also used as accommodation of long travel since they are adaptable to cross shallow lakes or water streams.
The economy
From the Chinese texts we can also compile a sketchy picture of the new society' s economy. As always, the appearance of the Funanese in Chinese text is not flattering. Hardly mistaken as a Chinese citizen, the indigenous kept their life-style but after all, they were not inclined toward thievery.
There are walled villages, palaces, and dwellings. The men are all ugly and black, their hair frizzy, they go about naked and barefoot. Their nature is simple and they are not inclined toward thievery. They devote themselves to agriculture. They sow one year they harvest for three. Moreover they like to engrave ornaments and to chisel. Many of theirs eating utensils are silver. Taxes are paid in gold, silver, pearls and perfumes.
Despise their physical appearance, they knew to take advantage of their natural environment and mineral resources. Beside agriculture, theirs life style was improved by the abundance of natural resources. They were craftsmen and ate with silver spoons. Another excerpt in his Pao pou tse by the famous Taoist philosopher Ko Hong affirmed (Funan XIII) the existence of a specific diamond which people can use to stripe the jade but can be dissolved by using the horn of a ram.
Apparently, (that diamond) resembles to a quart fume. It is at the bottom of the sea, at hundred changs deep on rock just like stalactites. The men dive to find it. If we hit it with iron, it is not damaged, at the contrary the iron is damaged. But if we hit a horn of the ram, (that diamond) dissolve immediately.
The religious system
The History of the Liang provides us a clear picture of the religious practices, of the Funan court, notably describing the Vishnuite cult.
Their custom is to worship the sky spirits. They make bronze image of the sky spirit; those that have two faces have four arms, and those that have four faces have eight arms. Each hand holds something, sometime a child, sometime a bird or a four legs animal, or else the sun or the moon.
Elephants were mentioned again as commodity for a long travel. The king when he sit down, assumed a royal pose typical of all Kambojan and Khmer kings of the Angkorian Empire.
The king, when he goes out or returns, travel by elephant; the same is true of the concubines and people of the palace. When the king sits down, he sits sideways, raising his right knee and letting his left knee fall to the ground. A piece of cotton material is spread before him, on which vases of gold and incense burners are laid.
As depicted on the wall of Angkor Wat, this pose was passed trough tradition to the Angkorian court from the Funan era. For the funeral ceremony, it appears that people had many choices of disposing their death.
In time of mourning, the custom is to shave off the beard and hair. There are four kinds of burial for the dead. "Burial by water" consists of throwing the corpse into the water currents. "Burial by fire" consists of reducing it to ashes. "Burial by earth" consists of burying in a pit, and "burial by birds" consists of abandoning it in the field.
This many forms of funeral tradition reflect the mixing of many cultures brought by immigrants into the new society. It is interesting to note about the option of leaving the corpse on the open field for birds to devour; this tradition is still seen widespread observed at Tibet.
The justice system
Despise all the civilized elements brought by the Hindu Culture, the Justice System seem to be based on animistic belief rather than on elaborate Hindu dharma or laws. At the first glance, it looks like there are superstitious elements involved but deep down psychology was the whole basic stratagem of the whole system.
They have no prisons. In case of dispute, they throw gold rings and eggs into boiling water; they must be pulled out. Or else they heat a chain red hot; this must be carried in the hands seven steps. The hands of the guilty are completely scorched; the innocents are not hurt. Or else the accused are made to jump into the water. The one who is right enters the water but does not sink; the one who is in error sinks.
The same ways as the lie detector was invented, the set up would harm the guilty person who, under his own superstitious belief, could not control his nervous system. Relying on the concept of mind over the body, the set up must be flawless on both physical and psychological accounts. We shall see that this justice system prevailed during the Angkorian era and lasted until late the thirteenth century.
THE EXPLOIT OF FUNAN
From its creation by king Hun-tien, Funan thrived as an independent kingdom and begun to claim back the ancient suzerainty of the Hiong-wang Kingdom. As time progressed, the Funan Empire expanded its control all over Southeast Asia and left its legacy in both the Khmer and Cham traditions. The real exploit was seen next during the reign of King Fan Man who, according to many Chinese accounts, was a member of the kamara grass root of the ancient Hiong-wang court.
(Fan) Man was brave and capable. By the strength of his troupes, he attacked nearby kingdoms; all were submitted to his vassalage. Himself took the title of grand king of Funan. Then he had constructed big ships, and skimming through the immense sea, he attacked more than ten kingdoms including Kiu tu kouen, kieou Tche, Tien Souen. He extended his territory to five or six thousands li. Then he liked to submit the kingdom of Kin Lin.
From the passage, it is clear that Fan Man was in the mission to reunite back the Hiong-wang kingdom. Another Chinese text mentioned that he got the support of the people from the start.
Tien Souen or the country of Brahmans
The Chinese word " Tien Souen ", in some occasion "Tun-sun" is undoubtedly the corruption of the word "Tian-Sun", meaning the offspring or descendants of the Tian. The Ming Tche later identify it as sri Dharmaraja, but we had seen that it also included the western part of mainland up to kiao-thce. As Sudhammavati of the menam valley, Tian-sun was a remnant of the Kamara or Tian culture that stayed out of Kiao-tche or Chinese control and evidences show that its strong cultural past was preserved during the Arianization of the Nandas at Trangangetic India. It is still the abode of the naga and other indigenous tribes of today, legacy that stood through massive Indianization after the formation of the Mauryan Empire in Trangangetic India. In the Chu Che Account of Funan, there is mentioning of Hindu Culture heading its way to Tian-sun and score of Brahmans from India were present.
The kingdom of Tun-sun depends on Funan; the king name is Kun Lun (Kamara). There were many Brahmans from India.
As we recalled back, Manipura had a strong tradition of Brahmnism and Tian-sun was always known as the country of the grand Brahmans in Chinese texts (Nagadvipa: The water Kingdom: Mahidhara as the adobe of the ocean naga kings). There is also mentioning of a number of Ho families settling in Tun-sun who were the ancestors of the Pyus (Dvaravati: The Chenla Connection: The Pyu Identity of King Bhavavarman). The new immigrants were fond of learning and they had their ways to keep the Brahmans available in their communities.
People of Tun-sun practice their doctrine and give them their daughters to marry; also (many of the Brahmans) do not leave. They only read sacred books of celestial spirits and offer diligently white vases of perfume and flowers, and do not stop at daytime or nighttime. When they are sick, they make promise to "be buried by birds". With songs and dances, people took their bodies out of town, and there are birds to devour them. Their leftover bones were burned and enclosed into a jar that they throw into water. If the birds do not eat them, they put them in basket. For what is that "burying by fire", it consists to throw the body in the fire. The ashes are collected in a vase that they bury during which they make sacrifices with no limits.
It is important to note that the tradition of burying by birds which according to Chinese texts was widespread in the rest of Funan, is still practiced by Tibetans people of today. About its geography, the Kang Tai and Chu Ying's account on Funan, described Tian-sun as having no more than 1,000 li in larger and was located at the western side of mainland Indochina.
The city is at 10 li from the sea. There are five kings. All are vassals of Funan. The east territory of Tun-sun make it in relation with Kiao tchou; it west territory touches India, at the extremity of far away kingdoms. Merchants came in big numbers to do commercial trading. Tun-sun makes a curve and advances more that a mile li into the sea. The big sea has no limit and people could not cross it directly. This market is the place of reunion of the east with the west. Each day, there is more than ten thousands men. Rare objects, precious merchandises, there is nothing that people could not find. There is a liquor tree, which resemble pomegranate. People retrieve the juice of its flower and put in a jar; a long many days, it changes into vine.
Obviously Tian-sun was an international market's place that retains its importance until modern days. It was the gate of the eastern world in connection with the West and the association of the name "Dvaravati" to the Menam Valley might have already been long conceived in the past.
Pi kien
One of the dependencies of Funan seams to be far away in the deep of the Southern China Sea. It was probably the kingdom of the Kia mentioned in another Chinese text, where king Hun Tien boarded a merchant ship to his destination of the Funan Empire.
Out of Tun-sun, on a big island of the sea, there is the country of Pi Kien, located at 8,000 li from Funan. People talked that the body of the king is big of twelve feet and his head of three feet. From long time ago, he did not die and nobody know his age. This king is supernatural and pious. Bad or good actions done by people of the kingdom, thing of the future, there is nothing that the king does not know. Also none dare to impose to him. In the south country people calls him the king with big neck.
The ruler of Pi-kien appeared to have the physical appearance of a giant that matches the reputation of the Kam stock. He could be just a Kambojean ruler of another highly superstitious society.
The habit of the country is to have houses for habitation, to wear cloths, to eat regular rice and not sweet rice. The language of the habitants differs a little from the Funan. There is a mountain that produces gold; gold appears on top of stone, in immense quantities.
The mentioning of gold mines reveals that the island was either Sumatra or Java. The next passage clearly portrays the habit of the southern indigenous people that still lasts until late modern days.
A law of the country punishes criminals by having people eating them in present of the sovereign. In that country, they don't receive foreign merchants; if they come, they kill them the same and eat them. Also no merchant dare to enter (in that country.
Contrary to all his subjects, the king does not eat meat and appeared to be vegetarian, a custom of a devout Hindu follower.
The king always lives in a high shelter. He does not eat meat and does not adore spirits. His sons and grand sons born and died the same as ordinary people; only the king doesn't die.
Even though he himself was a religious figure, the custom of human-flesh eating was still left to his subjects to practice. It shows clearly that foreign leadership had to yield to indigenous customs, still in strong control of theirs environment. As a dependency of Funan, the king sent tributes of Gold in the form of religious relics, one of which was the image of Tara (To lo), the popular deity of the Mahayana Buddhism. The rest of the text seams to indicate that the king of Pi Kien, was also an adept of the Buddhist doctrine as were most Kambojean Brahmans at the time.
The King of Funan often sends ambassadors to submit letters. They are responded one to the other. The king of Pi kien often sent to the king of Funan a vessel of pure gold for fifty peoples. The form is sometime like a round flat, other time like coupes of burned earth; what people call to lo; the continence is five cheng, or the form is the same as a cup, and the continence is one cheng. The king knows to write also in Hindu texts. The text of about 3,000 words, it talks about the previous lives and resembles to sutras of Buddha. It is also elaborated on the topic of goodness.
Kin Lin
Kin Lin was mentioned to be first spare from the conquest of Fan Che Man due to his illness. The Chinese text, the Tai-ping-yu-lan gives two citations about the country (the golden frontier). The first citation was found in Yi Wou Che account (Funan XII).
Kin Lin is also called Kin Tchen, the frontier country. It is about two thousands li from Funan. The country produces silver and the habitants are numerous. They like to chase grand elephants alive; when the elephants died, they took their ivory.
Another text borrowed from the Wai kono tchounan is just a repetition of the Yi Wou Che account. From the description, Kin Lin could be located at the high land of the Khorat Plateau and could be identified as Nokorrajasima, the Frontier Country. Known also as Kin Tchen, a corruption of Kin Tcheng meaning the Golden Country that should be identified as Suvanaphmumi, an ancient country visited by Budhha Gautama, claimed in the Mon Tradition. The word Chin Cheng on the other hand, used as synonymous of Kin Cheng could be instead a reference to Jinpuri or Prajinpuri of which the name is still retained until today. Historically tied with the Kamara Culture, Jinpuri (Jin-puri) is referring to a stronghold of the race Jin, the progenitor of the Khmer-mon people. Considering that most of present day's Cambodia was still a bay (Prey-nokor: The Cradle of Nokor-Khmer), Prachinapuri of the Khorat Plateau was then very much located at the seashore. It could then be both an important seaport and the military center at the time. This identification is checked out by another Chinese citation, the Funan ki of Tchou Tche.
We get there by cart or by horse; there is no waterway to get there. All the peoples adore the Buddha. Kin Lin could be reached from Lin Yang (Prey Nokor) by a land route of two thousands li.
Since there is no water way from Prey Nokor (Lin Yang) to Kin Lin, the country was obviously on the mainland and the distance of two Thousands li locates it right at the Khorat Plateau. As most parts of the mainland at the time, Kin-lin was under the control of the Cham leadership with the support of the Han Chinese (Champapura: The Cham countries). It explains why Kin-lin was the last in the conquest's list of king Fan Man as it was well protected by both the Han and the Cham kings. After the death of Sri Man, his son and heir apparently continued his campaign and by by conquering Kin Lin received the title of Chin Cheng.
THE SEA ROUTE
The formation of the Kushan Empire of North India, during the first few centuries of the Christian era, created potential economic boom for the Funan Empire. The Kushans were known as part of nomad tribes of central Asia Yueh-chih and were driven out of China in the early part of the second century BC. They moved westward along the route to the north of the Gobi Desert. They displaced the nomad Sakas from their pasture grounds and so set into motion their incursion into the Hellenistic world and eventually India. One great leader of the Kushan was Kaniska who was credited to the expansion of Mahayana Buddhism which was formed under his patronage, to central Asia and to China (A Concise History of India). The formation of Mahayana Buddhism that became the cultural interest of China was the backbone of the relationship between China and India. With the Buddhist cultural activities, trading between the two kingdoms also blossomed. However, these activities had been complicated by the presence of the Huns in Central Asia. The Huns were known as barbarians and harassed China, India and even the west for their living. A new trade route was by necessity, a solution to the Hun problem and needed to be explored.
The ancient port Oc Eo
Vestiges found at the archeology site of Oc Eo confirm the maritime activity at the location that proved to be of an ancient seaport. Oc Eo, a derivative of Khmer word "Au keo" meaning the Glass Canal, retains its indigenous name since the creation of Funan. Aerial photographs taken over the Mekong Delta reveal a network of ancient canals, one of which bisected the walls of an ancient city. On the ground archeologists found its wall and moats. Excavation unearthed remains of bricks, titles, glass beads and pottery vessels at a site. In another site the remains of a jewelry workshop were revealed by scattered fragment of gold, copper and bivalve molds for casting tin ornaments. Human bones were also found. The waterlogged substrate had preserved wooden posts, which would have raised buildings above the floodwater. These findings suggest an elaborate settlement of the region around the first century of the Christian Era and tha Oc Eo was a busy seaport and one of the trading markets of the Funan Empire. Vestiges also indicate that there was already confirmed sea trade between Funan and the West, even though sea trade's activities at the eastern side of the Malay Archipelago still lagged compared to its western side. As there were many established seaports on the western coast of Malaysia to accommodate big sailing ships carrying merchandise and travelers between the two continents, Oc Eo was found so far as the only port of the eastern side. As Funan became strong enough to control the region, the southern sea route could then reach China under more security provided by Funan. If established, it could replace the silk routes of Central Asia, and the sea route to the East would not only solve the Hun dilemma, but also joined Funan, with all its natural resources, into the International sea trade. This archeology's findings agree with Chinese records that communication had been established between the Indian and Chinese continents, through the Southern Sea, as earlier as in 147 AD.
At the time of the Han, specially under the reign of Emperor Ho (89-105), There was many ambassadors from India who came by Central Asia, after that they started again under Houan ti (147-167) by the Southern Sea.
The passage indicates clearly that Ambassadors from India used the Silk route to get to China during the early time. However, the Southern Sea route was apparently open during the early formation of Funan and the Indian diplomats did not need to go through harsh condition of the Central Asia to get to China. Political unrest during the next successions of Funan throne obviously caused the sea route to stop its activity until the reign of king Fan Chan.
The sea route plan
A Chinese record mentioned that during the rule of king Fan Chan(230-250 AD), there was a visitor from a far away place Tan Yang who passed through India and arrived to the Funan court (ISSA, Coedes). He recounted his long journey and impressed the king with stories about India. King Fan Chan appeared to be very interested and shortly after, he sent one of his relative Sou Wo to check the story out. Sou Wo boarded a ship leaving the "Teou Kou Li" seaport. Arriving at the river Ganges delta, he proceeded up north and presented himself as a guest to the court of the Indian sovereign Mou Luan (Muranda). After spending some time visiting the kingdom, he proceeded back home by the same way. Mou Luan sent four horses for Sou Wo to bring as presents to the Funan king. Mou Luan, according to some modern scholars, was a dynastic title of the Kushan Empire which at the time was extended eastward along the Ganges river, at least as far as Benares. After four years, Sou Wo arrived back home with the best regard sent from the king Mou Luan to the king of Funan. King Fan Chan was certainly pleased with the outcome of the trip; potentially a new route could be established between India and the East. Even though at first it was rough and lengthy, the new sea route was indeed an alternative to the land route across Central Asia. After his diplomacy had worked out with the Indian side, king Fan Chan sent his first diplomats to China. Although it appeared that the mission was of cultural exchange as the ambassadors brought with them a group of musicians and dancers, its purpose was obviously to introduce his plan to the Chinese court. From then on, Chinese scholars, merchants and diplomats visited Funan on their ways to India or to the west by sea route. Their records kept in Chinese court, became later the primary sources of information about Funan itself. The first of such visit was done by a diplomatic delegation headed by Kang Thai and You Chin, during the reign of king Fan Hsun at 150 AD. Kan Tai met the Hindou Che-Song sent by the "king of central India" in response to the invitation organized by Fan Chan (BEFEO III:Le Funan, Paul Pellio, p.276). It was the same Kang Thai and You Chin who provided the first glimpse of Funan in their memoir of the visit. However, after the meeting, it appeared that circumstances were not going according to the plan. There were no more Chinese records of Funan until the mentioning of Tien Chu Chan Tan around 375 AD. We shall see that the Indian Chan Tan in the Chinese text was no other than Chandra Gupta II whose reign extended also over the Funan Empire (). We shall see that the fall of the Kushans and the decline of Funan were both tied to the emergence of the Gupta Empire in Tansgangetic India (Indianization: The Gupta Empire).
The set-back
In India, the Gupta court won over the Kushan and established theirs empire along the Ganges River. The fall of Kushan was a serious blow to the Funan Empire, at least economically due to the collapse of the planned sea trade between the Kushan Empire and China. The fall of the Koshan hit the Funan Empire the hardest as the hope of the economic gain from the sea route dashed, and to make the matter worst, evidences show that the Gupta Empire would move east to take part in the boom of the International seat trade. Due to the influx of new immigrants, the communities along the western coast of Malay Peninsular and in the islands of the South China Sea sprung up to become major players of the sea trade. These communities were to become major seaports where market exchanges between the West and Southeast Asia took places. Under the control of the powerful Gupta Empire, evidence show that commercial activities had extended theirs course along the western shorelines of the mainland Indochina. However there were no such activities recorded at the eastern side of the Peninsular. What was left were ships from Arab countries and perhaps some from the West that took a detour of the Indian continent in destination to the east. According to the Chinese source, at the time of Wei (220-264) and of Wou (222-280), all relations through the sea route stopped. We shall see that during this time, Chandra Gupta II had extended the Indian Cakravatin Empire over all the ream of Nagadvipa and Funan was part of it.
Reference:
  1. ISSA: The Indianized States of Southeast Asia, by G. Coedes
  2. FUNAN: BEFEO III: Le Funan, by Paul Pelliot
  3. DICI: BEFEO IV: Deux Itineraires de Chine en Inde, by Paul Pelliot
Notes:
  1. Ancient Civilization
    Evidence from stone depiction, shows that nudity was not perceived as uncivilized among advanced societies of tropical climate including the arianized India itself.
  2. The Indian Kambojas
    Scholars agree that King Hun Tien, the first king of Funan, arrived to the mainland of Indochina around the Christian era, well before the emergence of both the Pallava and the Pala kings of India. We shall see later that the Pallavas were instead the Kam kings from Southeast Asia, driven out by the Chenla kings at the end of the sixth century. The Pala, on the other hand, was a resurrection of the nanda.
  3. The Family Name
    Under the recent French protectorate, when legal documentation such as birth certificate required a family name, Cambodian just take the name of their immediate male ancestor, usually their father or grand father's name as their family name.
  4. The Kam identity
    The association of the Kam identity to the Khmer, valid on the ground of cultural exchange between the leadership of Ganthara and the people of Indochina rejects the misconception of the Southern Tai migration. Either through India or through Central China, only the Kam leadership reached Indochina. They might bring along members of theirs own family, but the settlements of these families of Central Asian stocks in the south never involved with mass migration. The Southeast Asian Kam people were then the Khmer-mon people speaking Khmer-mon tongue.
  5. Hun Tien and Pya Khamdeng
    It is possible that Hun Tien and Pya Khamdeng were of the same family tree and based on the fact that the Tai identity is another version of Western Kambojan legacy, the Tai-kam legacy of the southern Menam Valley could be argued to date from the formation of Funan by king Hun-tien. This southern development however was very much disconnected from the northern Tai development of the Yunnnan country and, in any case, was not involved with mass migration of Tai people.
  6. Panan vs Funan
    Because the Chinese reference of "Pa-nan" was Ba-Phnom and was once a capital of Funan, scholars wrongly postulated that Funan was the Chinese transcription of Nokor Phnom. Actually, Ba-Phnom was a replica of the mount Meru which characterized the center of the Khmer Culture formed by Kaundinya and retained its name ever since. There is no evidence that the place was called Ba-Phnom before then. It is important to note that in Chinese texts, Pa-nan only appeared in I-tsing's record about the fate of Buddhism during the Chenla uprising.
    7. E-mail: khmerheritage@worldnet.att.net