Background re: ancient – medieval Chinese history and culture.

China: Prehistory

Chinese human origins are among the oldest known; the earliest “protohuman” remains in Asia, for example, were discovered in northeastern China.  After the last glacial period about 20,000 years ago, modern humans settled in the Ordos Desert area.  Chinese agriculture began about 4000 BC (6,000 years ago) during the Neolithic Age.  Its chief crop that was the focus of large-scale production was mullet; cabbage, rice, and soybeans soon followed.

Whatever its origins, by the 3rd to 2nd millennium BC (2700 BC), China developed a rather uniform culture largely unlike no others.

Dynastic Cycle

With the establishment of agriculturally based cities in China, a dynastic system of government developed during the late 3rd millennium BC.  Its history follows a general pattern of repetitive cycles of waxing and waning that allowed the far-western and southern periphery of China to become ethnically and linguistically diverse as these regions periodically fell out of centralized control.

This pattern/ cycle is described as follows:

1. Chinese cultural dominance and dynasties solidify their control between the Huang-He River Valley and the Yangzi River Valley.  This vast and fertile region emerged as central to the core of Chinese culture and its identity to become established by the 3rd century BC.

2. Chinese expansion is halted by invading bands of nomadic tribesmen (barbarians) from the north and west, causing Chinese governmental influence to withdraw from the northern and western perimeters.

3. These conquerors invade China proper and adopt Chinese customs and culture to establish their own dynasty.  Eventually this foreign-dominated dynasty falters in its leadership.

a. As the dynasty ages it becomes corrupt and fails to maintain public works.

i. Economic problems and limited access of peasants and others to land (which is held by great landlords) are important parts of the developing situation threatening political stability.  The great landlords successfully evade taxes, and those that are collected fail to reach the government and king (or emperor beginning with the Ch’in Dynasty).  Land redistribution to small independent farmers temporarily solved the tax problems, but led to the formation of new influence patterns and corruption.  Crop failures and famine aggravate problems leading to political fragmentation.

ii. Provincial warlords emerge to challenge the authority of the central government of China.

b. This government may also become involved in excessive or prolonged warfare as it attempts to maintain control of its outer provinces.

c. As the socio-political situation worsens, the Chinese people realize (according to traditionally-held beliefs) that the government has lost its “Mandate of Heaven” and therefore its right to govern as well.

4. This situation allows traditional Chinese leadership to reclaim power amidst an escalation of nationalist-like sentiment (proto-nationalism).

5. A new (traditionally and hereditarily Chinese) government (with ties to the old) assumes power to establish a new dynasty, replacing the bureaucracy, establishing tax reforms, rebuilding public works, and redistributing land.

6. Prosperity and stability resumes (this can last generations) until instability and political strife resurface.

7. With the disintegration of this dynastic regime, provincial revolts or foreign invasion follows with the establishment of a new dynasty, and the cycle resumes.

This dynastic system began in the late 3rd century BC and ended in 1911 AD (though some scholars argue that after Mao came to power in 1949, Communist China follows a typical dynastic cycle as a “peasant dynasty”).

Chinese Philosophy

Language has always been an important issue in Chinese history; it is the primary force behind the perpetuation of culture that binds everyone together as Chinese.

Confucianism

Confucius (K’ung Fu-tse c. 551 – 479 BC); founder of Confucianism: This renowned Chinese itinerant sage called for the creation of a system of government and morals that would create and preserve peace and stability.

Life and background of Confucius:

As a child, K’ung Fu-tse received a traditional education that included writing, music, and rituals.  After the death of Confucius’s father, his family fell on tough times.  Confucius took jobs as a teacher and accountant.  Confucius’s outspoken demeanor and criticisms of the inequities in civil rights that resulted from the absolutism of the government won him many followers.  At the core of his teachings was the importance of correct and honest relationships between people.  Confucianism stresses the responsibilities of the ruler in relation to his subjects that appears similar to the idea of social contract during the Enlightenment in Europe.  Confucianism generally asserted that all government was evil, and that good persons are made, not born.  The teachings of Confucius became a pillar of Chinese society.

Mencius
 
Mencius (Meng-tse (Mandarin); 371 – 288 BC); this Confucian philosopher came to prominence through his criticism of government while stressing the innate goodness of human beings (like John Locke in the 17th century AD).  Mencius politicized Confucianism stressing that in any society the well-being of the people must always come before that of the rulers; otherwise the people have the right to revolt.  This idea became an important aspect of Chinese government; the people’s right was translated as the “Mandate of Heaven.”

Taoism

Lao-Tzu (his name means “Old Person” or Old Philosopher” fl. 6th century BC); the founder of Taoism.  Though he was a historical figure there is much folklore about him.  Loa Tzu is credited with transmitting his ideas to a border guard before departing in the direction of the mythical K’un-lun Mountains; his disappearance is traditionally interpreted as his having left China for Nepal to instruct the young Buddha.

The Tao emphasizes the cosmic unity of all things and harmony with the forces of nature, stressing the importance of the “wu-wei” which refers to “nonstriving” or action without purpose.  Through Taoism, Lao Tzu emphasized the importance of human relationships to nature.  Tao “the way.”  Wu wei = “continuum like water.”  A person who lives life in a non-striving manner will supposedly be closer to the perennial and creative potentials, and ecstatic qualities, of the Tao.  Taoism recommended that retreat from society offered a solution to suffering.  Through contemplation about nature, people can find the Tao, the way, the mysterious.  The enlightened individual was likened to a little child or an uncarved block, in a perennially ecstatic state.  Taoism offers a method to BE without leaning.  Taoism stresses minimal government and its role in protecting people from materialistic passions.

A follower of the Tao supposedly would find himself (or herself) free from desire (asceticism), though the simple life recommended through Taoism is one that should be enjoyed.  By the 3rd century AD, Taoism merged with local belief systems and deities, traditional medicine (where it incorporated alchemy), and with Buddhism.  The martial arts aspects of Taoism are popularly known in the modern world by the name Kung Fu.

Legalism

Legalism emphasized the use of force to do right; it called for strict punishments for even the lightest lawbreaking.  Under legalism even freedom of thought was outlawed.

Mo-tzu

Mo-tzu (c. 470 – 391 BC) in his book (named after him) stressed the importance of love in all human relationships, and that all people should treat each other in the manner of family.  First emerging as a rival philosophical system to Confucianism, Moism declined until it became virtually non-existent by the 3rd century AD.

Sun Tzu (c. 500 – 320 BC); this was not one figure only, but rather a series of anonymous writers who wrote a series of essays on philosophy related to military espionage, logistics, and strategy that together comprise the book titled The Art of War.  The core of this text of classical military science was likely composed during a period of internal strife and feudal wars known as the “Warring States Period” (453–221 BC).  Noting the pervasiveness of unpredictable situations that arise during warfare, The Art of War stresses the need for using methods of deception and surprise in order to win battles.

The Art of War also points out the close connections between politics and the business of war, emphasizing its high costs and the ironies that come with victory.  In addition to opposing ritualized warfare and wars of contest and bravado, Sun Tzu points out the folly of pursuing quick solutions or hard and fast rules with regard to war.  Nevertheless, according to Sun Tzu, a war should be fought as efficiently as possible and with as little damage as possible.  To this end, Sun Tzu emphasized competent military leadership and organization, and the effective use of propaganda, psychology, and espionage against the opposition as a means to demoralize and convert an enemy.  According to Sun Tzu, the best-won battle is that which is secured without a fight; the only real reasons for war should be:

1. To increase wealth

2. To increase territory

3. To increase the power of the state

Importance of Chinese philosophy in the history of modern China:

Chinese philosophy and classical literature formed part of the “civil service exams” that were used to qualify Chinese governmental leaders (bureaucrats) and intellectuals based on their cultural refinement and moral character.  For this reason the great landlords throughout Chinese history sought education – historically in China people were judged for their education rather that their property – education held far greater importance than land.

Modern China

Modern China began with the establishment of the Ch’ing Dynasty in 1644 (the Ch’ing fell from power in 1912) and continues through the present day.
Culturally, the model for Chinese culture was established under the leadership of the Han Dynasty.

Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD):

The era of the Han Dynasty is referred to as “Pax Sinica” the imperial age of China; the Han thus became the cultural type that later dynasties sought to emulate as a means of winning the support of the Chinese people (and the “Mandate of Heaven”) through the modern era.  While the austere legalist aspects (extreme punishments and heavy taxation) of the previous Ch’in Dynasty were removed, the Han kept the hierarchical bureaucratic structure of the Ch’in in place.

Moreover, the bureaucracy was augmented through an elaborate system of recruitment involving civil service exams that became the hallmark of the Chinese traditional educational and governmental system until the twentieth century AD.  Having created a stable government with full granaries and a sound economy, the “Mandate of Heaven” was achieved.

1. The Han Dynasty was a period of great artistic achievement (including the creation of fine porcelain)

2. Under Han rule, the Chinese calendar was revised and paper was invented.

3. Under the Han, territorial expansion and unification reached a peak.

4. The Han period was a time of stability and prosperity.

5. Under the Han, Confucianism became institutionalized as the basis for government.

6. The Han government wrote the first official/ state history of China, and the standardization of the written language was perfected.

7. The first Chinese dictionary was compiled.

8. Calligraphy was established as an expression of learned people.

9. During the Han Dynasty, Buddhism entered China to become an important form of religious/ spiritual/ philosophical expression, allowing ties with India.

The Han Dynasty ruled with only one interruption for about 400 years, finally coming to an end with its collapse in 220 AD; after the short rule of the “Three Kingdoms” (Wei, Shu, and Wu: 220–265 AD) the establishment of a new dynastic cycle under the Chin (Tsin) emerged.  From the time of the Han, however, Chinese culture and its system of government became formulated or conventionalized for its continued replication.

All future dynasties were required to meet these standards for the establishment of good government and the “Mandate of Heaven.”  When the Manchu assumed power over the empire in 1644, they too essentially became Chinese, according to the Han model.

The Ch’ing Dynasty and Modern China:

The Ch’ing Dynasty displaced the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644); its leaders were not Chinese, but rather, they were Manchu (Mongol-related inhabitants of Manchuria).  To be Chinese it was necessary for a person to understand and accept Chinese culture; the Manchus did this.  Thus they became Chinese and initiated a dynasty.  Culturally, Han Chinese made up roughly 90% of the population during the Ch’ing Dynasty.  The Manchus amounted to about 1.5% of China during that period.  Other minorities included the following ethnic groups (there were about 30 separate groups):

Tibetans
Mongolians
Muslims

The Chinese dynastic cycle ran for 300 years on average, divided roughly in half between a 150-year period of growth and prosperity/ stability and a 150-year period of decline.  Modern China differed from earlier periods of its history in that it received the brunt of European colonization – Modern China focused on its response to the West – in many ways it became this response.

Traditional invasions of China came overland through its “front door” – the western frontier and the Silk Road.  Ming Dynasty China was caught off-guard when seafaring European explorers entered China through its “back door” – the Silk Road.  When Europeans entered China, causing disruptions, many critics deemed that the Ming Dynasty had lost the “Mandate of Heaven.”

The fall of the Ming Dynasty:

The late Ming Dynasty was fraught with internal strife and factionalism as the eunuchs under the “Young Emperor” vied for control with the traditional classically educated bureaucrats.

Issues that indicated that the Ming Dynasty had lost the “Mandate of Heaven”:

– moral decline

– famine

– the rise of independent rebel leaders in southern China:

Li Tzu-Chung

Chang sing-Chung

Using his highly effective “banner system” of command,  Nurhachi breached the Great Wall and gained power in the north of China; the Chinese Empire was led by a weak emperor whose family fought with each other for power, while the eunuchs had once again gained control of the Ming government.

Nurhachi never lived to see the Manchus come to power in China; after a series of spectacular successes he was mortally wounded in a battle by a European canon that a Ming general had obtained from Jesuit priests.

While the general who normally supervised the guarding of the gate to Beijing was away from the capitol in order to crush the southern rebellions, a peasant leader who was left in charge of the guards began an affair with the general’s wife.  This peasant leader betrayed his orders and allowed the Manchu forces to enter the city whereby they overthrew the emperor.

Once he consolidated his power, the Manchus shrewdly created a Chinese-Manchu dyarchy, whereby two rulers, one Han, and the other Manchu, led the empire (it actually became a “synarchy” with the inclusion of the Mongols in an arrangement of joint-rule).

Because of its organization and preservation of many Ming organizational features, the Manchu system that became the Ch’ing Dynasty amounted to a form of “proto-nationhood,” according to some historians.  The Manchus also wisely assigned the Ming-loyalist troops to the southern provinces, rewarding them with land.  Nurhachi’s son Abahai assumed the Manchu leadership after the death of his father, bringing Nurhachi’s dream to fruition.

Following the tradition established by Kublai Khan, Abahai established his court at Beijing and retained most of the Ming institutions; he also employed the scholars in writing the history of the Ming Dynasty.  Following Abahai’s death, Dorgan, a powerful regent, ruled China to become instrumental in establishing the Manchu government, naming it “Ch’ing,” meaning “bright.”

Dorgan instituted an accurate census and poll tax and land tax system to exact revenues for the operation of the government; anti-Manchu propaganda was destroyed.  Following the established methods of Nurhachi, Abahai, and Dorgan, the long-lived and effective Ch’ing ruler was K’ang Hsi (many scholars consider him to have been the most effective ruler in Chinese history).

K’ang Hsi was responsible for the writing of the Ming history (as begun by Abahai, and he standardized and published the Chinese dictionary for general consumption.  K’ang Hsi was met with several important problems, most notably the persistence of southern rebellions and the increased presence of Russian intrusions in northern China.  In order to deal with the incursions of Russians into China, K’ang Hsi employed Jesuit advisors (one Portuguese and the other, French – both priests could translate Russian, and each sought advantages for their respective national interests).  Unlike previous xenophobic Chinese emperors, who generally considered outsiders to be barbarians, K’ang Hsi was enlightened enough to meet the Russians as equals (this was really the first and last time that Chinese allowed such footing).

The outcome of this meeting was the Treaty of Nertchinsk (1689) that involved trade and the establishment of new territorial boundaries (China lost 25 million acres to Russia – 10-year-old Peter became Czar in 1682).

China traditionally turned to the past (and its classical literature/ philosophy) for solutions to present problems.  There were, however, no historical precedents for the Treaty of Nertchinsk.  The Russians were granted special privileges by Ch’ing Dynasty China for the following reasons:

1. Like the Mongols, Russia presented a possible and important threat, due to its geographic position.

2. Due to persistent threats from Mongols in the north, the presence of Russia as an ally was considered to be helpful.

3. Russia appeared on the scene at just about the same time that the Ch’ing Dynasty was forming – things would likely have been quite different had the Russians appeared a century or more later.

4. Other Western nations (Portugal and Holland) were showing up in the port cities of eastern China, but compared to Russia, their numbers were small and manageable.  Russia had amassed large numbers of troops on the northern boarder of China – though these numbers were large, they were still insufficient for an invasion into China.  K’ang Hsi was also very aware that the Russian interest was not military, but rather commercial in nature.

Once the treaty was signed, K’ang Hsi turned his attentions to the rebel provinces in the south, and after the defeat of the rebel forces, three tribes fled mainland China to the island of Formosa (Taiwan) where they remain still as part of the Taiwanese population).  K’ang Hsi ruled for a lengthy 61 years, returning taxes during years of surplus and travelling throughout the empire in the effort to win the hearts of the people.  Successive generations of Chinese emperors failed to live up to the “Mandate of Heaven” ideal.

K’ang Hsi was succeeded by his son Yung-cheng (r. 1723–35),  whose conservative and xenophobic leadership resulted in another treaty with Russia that allowed it the unprecedented right to build a church in Beijing, and sent a Chinese ambassador (K’ang Hsi’s uncle) to Russia.  One of the problems with the Ch’ing Dynasty leadership was that it had no plan for the succession of emperors.  This marked the first time that China engaged in international relations requiring the sending of diplomats outside the empire.

In order to deal with the regular interaction on outsiders, the “Council for Barbarian Affairs” was established – later, the British would strongly object to the idea of dealing with an agency of that title.  The Russians considered these treaties open invitations for trade; ten trade caravans poured into the empire between 1698 and 1712 with merchandise that wasn’t of any real interest to China.  As a result of this situation, Czar Peter sent a Dutch merchant to China in 1693–94 to examine the Chinese markets in an effort to develop a trade strategy (especially to find something that the Chinese would need to import from Russia – ultimately nothing would be found).

In 1718 Chinese/ Russian relations soured as China grew weary of footing the bill for the trade caravans, while Russian merchants complained that no one would buy their goods.  Chinese officials remained astonished that the Russians continued to bring large quantities of goods that were of little or no value in China.

Sequence of events:

1722: death of K’ang Hsi, and Yung-cheng’s specious rise to power.

1725: death of Czar Peter (“the Great”) – he was succeeded by his wife Catherine I (Catherine “the Great”).

A Chinese/ Russian leadership void resulted.

1736: death of Yung-cheng

Ch’ien-lung succeeded his father (Yung-cheng) to the throne (r. 1736–95).

Yung-cheng’s rule betrayed the edict of the Mandate of heaven; rather than govern for the good of the empire, he preferred to engage in personal, hedonistic pursuits.  Yung-cheng’s specious acquisition of power caused a rift between him and his father’s allies, rejecting them.

Perhaps the most significant event during this period was the arrival of a British expedition under the leadership of Lord McCartney and sponsored by the East India Company.  Britain and the East India Company solved the pervasive problem experienced by all European traders in China, that seldom found markets for their goods in China, resulting in enormous trade deficits.

The success of British merchants depended on their illegal importation and sale of opium; eventually they became fabulously rich on the opium trade in China.

The “Canton System of Trade” between the West and China:

In addition to the Russians, Portuguese and Dutch traders became established in China during the reign of Emperor Ch’ien-lung.  The Dutch center was at Taiwan.  Britain, however, would come to dominate the Chinese trade by the early nineteenth century.  Like earlier European attempts to establish exchange with China, it fell into debt due to its failure to establish markets for its products.  Unlike earlier European attempts, however, Britain came up with a unique solution – the sale of opium, something that was punishable by death in China.

Late 18th-century Britain and the development of its trade ties with China:

1. British commercial characteristics:

a. mercantilism

b. industrialism – the “Manchester Industrialists” – Freidrich Engels was there during the nineteenth century

c. capitalism

d. rising middle class – due to limits in British social mobility for many British middle class subjects during this period, many of them sought opportunities in India

i. private businessmen (who were mostly of Scots origin) were able to purchase from the British government positions as consuls (representatives of the government in foreign lands) in “the Orient”

ii. Once they attained such posts, they established business ties to the places of their consulates

iii. In China, many of these Scots businessmen/ government representatives, built the opium trade

a. The East India Company (founded in the 1760s) held the largest monopoly in “the Oriental trade” and argued in favor of introducing opium in China as a means to offset trade imbalances.

– In 1834 the East India Company lost its monopoly in China while William Jardine’s trade firm of Jardine, Matheson and Company acquired a dominant position in the markets.

i. The East India Company made inroads among the lowest class of Chinese merchants – the Ko-hong, who frequently participated in illegal trade, but who also held a monopoly on the legal trade between China and the Europeans at Canton and elsewhere.

ii. The Ch’ing contemptuously pitted the Europeans against the Ko-hong, but these elements ended up teaming their efforts in many ways; the East India Company cemented its relationship with the Ko-hong by bailing them out of fines and sanctions imposed on them by the Ch’ing government.

iii. Financed by the East India Company, Lord McCartney, a former member of the British and Irish parliaments, ambassador to Russia and India, and chief secretary to Ireland, was sent to negotiate additional British concessions in China (including an embassy in Beijing)

iv. This 1793-4 British expedition (aboard the warship HMS Lion) was not just diplomatic in nature; it consisted of scientists, surveyors, and cartographers.

v. Refusing to follow the traditional overland tributary route to Beijing (McCartney convinced Chinese officials otherwise), this British expedition followed (and surveyed) the coastline north from Canton to Shanghai.

vi. Moreover, the British government (in support of the East India Company) instructed McCartney to treat Chinese officials in the same manner as any western nation.

– the expedition was instructed NOT to perform the ritual “kau-tau” (kowtow – consisting of 9 prostrations – knees to forehead)

vii. Needless to say, the Ch’ing Dynasty officials abhorred McCartney and his disrespectful company of British.

– No concessions were had, and they were ordered to leave the country.

– Using the pretext that he “missed his boat,” McCartney requested that he return overland to Canton (with his surveyors) – Chinese officials consented; they simply wanted to get rid of him!

– McCartney was thus escorted by two Chinese (not Manchu) officials, who, during the course of their trip, divulged important strategic information to the British (the fact that there hadn’t been insurrections for a long time, and that bows and arrows were their primary means of defense, etc.).

– McCartney came away from the lengthy return trip with the realization that there were some cracks in the Ch’ing Dynasty that could be exploited.

viii. Opium – this powerful narcotic came from India; its first British introduction into China (by 1800) came in the form of a medicine (opium abuse didn’t end in China until the 1950s).

– via the East India Company, the British government had entered the drug business.

– Opium abuse began among the Chinese upper class and intelligentsia.

– The opium trade cycle: China bought Indian opium through British merchants.  Chinese silver thus flowed to India, which in turn, purchased British goods and manufactures.

– As its use spread, the demand for opium increased, quickly correcting the perennial trade imbalance in the favor of Britain.  It wasn’t long before China began purchasing opium with its vast and precious supplies of silver.

ix. In its attempt to curtail this developing situation and its destructiveness, China’s Commissioner Lin Tse-Hsu called for harsh punishments for opium use.

– Commissioner Lin was a product of Confucian China, and his actions pursuant to his assignment to curtail opium use (especially in the military), were based in Chinese classical learning.

– Following Commissioner Lin’s orders, Chinese officials arrested all suspected drug dealers and executed them (they were tied with a board secured from their head to back, upon which the nature of their crimes were displayed in writing; them they were decapitated).

– Commissioner Lin then demanded that the British at Canton turn over their opium to him.  British Captain Charles Elliot (the son of a British governor) then assured the opium traders that once they turned their opium supplies over to him, he would compensate them.

– Captain Elliot (who represented a new British imperial mentality) then expected Chinese officials to reimburse him for the cost of the confiscated opium; should they refuse, this was cause for war.

– China had little understanding of modern (Western) international law (this was a developing western concept).  Britain on the other hand was pride-full and arrogant in its dealings with the East; it had taken control of India at a great price, and refused to back down without a fight.

– Captain Elliot turned the huge stores (21,305 chests) of British opium over to Commissioner Lin, who then destroyed it by crushing the opium balls and burying them in three trenches, each 150 feet long, 75 feet wide, and 7 feet deep, thoroughly soaked in water, lime, and salt.

– Pursuant to this supposed “loss of British property” Captain Elliot then called for British military support with “prompt and vigorous proceedings” against the Chinese government.

– In response to Elliot’s call for help, sixteen British warships (with 540 guns) were dispatched to China

– A British blockade was set up outside the Pearl River, while British warships moved up China’s coast to the Yellow River.

– Beijing ignored this threat until the capital city itself was threatened.  43 additional warships arrived later from India over the course of the war.

x. Thus began the Opium War (1840–1842) that ended with the signing of the Treaty of Nanking (August 29, 1842) that granted the following concessions to Britain (that were forced on China at gun-point):

– Payment of $21 million to British interests

– The end of the Ko-hong trade monopoly

– British commercial and diplomatic access to China’s five major ports: Amoy, Canton, Foochow, Ningpo, and Shanghai.

– The cession of Hong Kong from China to Britain.

– Recognition of British equality with China with regard to the tone of official communications.

– Tariff issues.

xi. Negotiated by Ch’i-ying and Sir Henry Pottinger the Treaty of Nanking granted Britain favored nation status, while British subjects were exempt from Chinese laws (and subject to British law only) while in China.

– The Treaty of Nanking set a precedent for other nations in their own pursuits of concessions in China; shortly after the signing of the treaty, France and the United States each negotiated similar (though not so inclusive) treaties.

– In the U.S. treaty, the United States promised not to deal in opium or demand land/ territory from China, becoming an important factor in China’s attitude toward the U.S.

– American merchant families (such as the Delanos of New York) became established in China as a result.

– U.S. interests desired to establish churches and hospitals in China.

– Nevertheless, many American merchants illegally traded in opium, while the French did openly.

xii. Though opium was the reason for the war between China and Britain, it is ironic that the drug and its illegal trade was not included as part of the Treaty of Nanking.

xiii. The Emperor of China was extremely reluctant to ratify the treaty; Queen Victoria readily approved it afterward, making it a matter of law.

3. China was finally forced to legalize opium in the Treaty of Tientzin (1858).

4. The sacking of Beijing followed when British forced their way up river to Beijing, against Chinese tradition and law (this was the Imperial Route approaching the city).  The British ransacked the Imperial Palace and destroyed (among many other things) an exact replica (better than the original) of the Palace of Versailles.  As a result of the dramatic foreign intrusion into China, the Ch’ing Dynasty was increasingly seen as having lost the “Mandate of Heaven.”

Indeed, the dynasty had been weakened; by the late 1840s and 1850s there were environmental problems and crop failures, a great famine (1849–50), a continuing drug problem, and rebellions erupted throughout the empire, especially in the southern provinces.

Post-Opium War Rebellions – Prelude to Chinese Nationalism:

Rebellions – there were many rebellions after the Opium War:

1. 1850s: Nie’n rebellion

2. 1855–1873: Muslim rebellions

3. 1862: Tung’an rebellion

4. 1851–1864: Taiping Revolution or the Taiping Rebellion ("Taiping tien-quo" means the "Heavenly Kingdom of Great Peace").

– there were Taiping elements in 16 of the 18 Chinese Provinces, leading to the destruction of more than 600 cities.  This was the greatest of the mid-19th-century rebellions in China.

a. The Taiping Revolution was essentially an 1850s–1860s revitalization movement that became violently anti-western and anti-Manchu – it led to a civil war in China that the West remained neutral on.

b. The Taipings came from the lowest of the Chinese classes, the Hakka (they were often likened to European gypsies); Christian missionaries made significant inroads among the Hakka.

c. Land reform was a major objective of the Taipings.

d. The Revolution originated with Hung Hsiu-ch’üan (the “Youngest Son of Jesus”) who claimed to have visions that incorporated both Christian and non-Chinese interpretations of Chinese themes; he became the “Heavenly King.”  In content, it was essentially non-Chinese.

e. The Revolution was led by a triad of “kings” and a core group of six men who set out to “win the hearts of the people.”

i. “The Southern King”/ the “Brother of Jesus”

ii. “The Eastern King”/ the “Fourth Son of Jesus”

iii. “The Western King”/ the “Fifth Son of Jesus”

iv. Shih/ “The Assistant King”

f. Rejecting the traditional queue of the Manchu, the Taipings wore their hair long.

g. The Taiping revolutionaries had a “die in battle” ideal that made them fiercely unwilling to retreat from battle this fierceness made them successful for a time – in their attack on the city of Nanking (Nanjing) and the resulting the Nanking Massacre 11 million people were slaughtered (in an area about the size of the San Fernando Valley).  Despite these terrible losses, the Taiping failed to completely control the city.  The Taipings occupied Nanking beginning in March of 1853,  renaming it T'ien-ching, or "Heavenly Capital."

h. The Taiping Revolution faltered as it became worn out, and as losses mounted when Taiping warriors were slaughtered rather than surrender to Ch’ing troops.  The first foreign intervention in the conflict came when the American businessman Frederick T. Ward of Salem, Massachusetts, led several thousand Chinese troops (including a few hundred Filipinos) in the defense of Shanghai against the Taipings in 1860.

The fact that the Taipings were so anti-West also undermined their potential.  The Taipings failed in part because of a series of military blunders.

– Though they were capable of taking Shanghai, the Taipings didn’t.

– Though they came very near Beijing, they failed to take the capital city.

i. As the first revolution that did not follow Chinese tradition, the legacy of the Taipings is that their movement provided the stimulus for later Chinese revolutions.